US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL15.04.25

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION

This manual is based entirely on the keyword SURVIVAL. The letters in this word can help
guide you in your actions in any survival situation. Whenever faced with a survival
situation, remember the word SURVIVAL.

SURVIVAL ACTIONS
The following paragraphs expand on the meaning of each letter of the word survival. Study and
remember what each letter signifies because you may some day have to make it work for you.

S -Size Up the Situation
If you are in a combat situation, find a place where you can conceal yourself from the enemy.
Remember, security takes priority. Use your senses of hearing, smell, and sight to get a feel for the
battlefield. What is the enemy doing? Advancing? Holding in place? Retreating? You will have to
consider what is developing on the battlefield when you make your survival plan.
Size Up Your Surroundings
Determine the pattern of the area. Get a feel for what is going on around you. Every environment,
whether forest, jungle, or desert, has a rhythm or pattern. This rhythm or pattern includes animal and bird
noises and movements and insect sounds. It may also include enemy traffic and civilian movements.
Size Up Your Physical Condition
The pressure of the battle you were in or the trauma of being in a survival situation may have caused you
to overlook wounds you received. Check your wounds and give yourself first aid. Take care to prevent
further bodily harm. For instance, in any climate, drink plenty of water to prevent dehydration. If you are
in a cold or wet climate, put on additional clothing to prevent hypothermia.
Size Up Your Equipment
Perhaps in the heat of battle, you lost or damaged some of your equipment. Check to see what
equipment you have and what condition it is in.
Now that you have sized up your situation, surroundings, physical condition, and equipment, you are
ready to make your survival plan. In doing so, keep in mind your basic physical needs--water, food, and
shelter.

U -Use All Your Senses, Undue Haste Makes Waste
You may make a wrong move when you react quickly without thinking or planning. That move may result
in your capture or death. Don't move just for the sake of taking action. Consider all aspects of your
situation (size up your situation) before you make a decision and a move. If you act in haste, you may
forget or lose some of your equipment. In your haste you may also become disoriented so that you don't
know which way to go. Plan your moves. Be ready to move out quickly without endangering yourself if
the enemy is near you. Use all your senses to evaluate the situation. Note sounds and smells. Be
sensitive to temperature changes. Be observant.
Page 5 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

R -Remember Where You Are
Spot your location on your map and relate it to the surrounding terrain. This is a basic principle that you
must always follow. If there are other persons with you, make sure they also know their location. Always
know who in your group, vehicle, or aircraft has a map and compass. If that person is killed, you will have
to get the map and compass from him. Pay close attention to where you are and to where you are going.
Do not rely on others in the group to keep track of the route. Constantly orient yourself. Always try to
determine, as a minimum, how your location relates to-•
•
•
•

The location of enemy units and controlled areas.
The location of friendly units and controlled areas.
The location of local water sources (especially important in the desert).
Areas that will provide good cover and concealment.

This information will allow you to make intelligent decisions when you are in a survival and evasion
situation.

V -Vanquish Fear and Panic
The greatest enemies in a combat survival and evasion situation are fear and panic. If uncontrolled, they
can destroy your ability to make an intelligent decision. They may cause you to react to your feelings and
imagination rather than to your situation. They can drain your energy and thereby cause other negative
emotions. Previous survival and evasion training and self-confidence will enable you to vanquish fear
and panic.

I -Improvise
In the United States, we have items available for all our needs. Many of these items are cheap to replace
when damaged. Our easy come, easy go, easy-to-replace culture makes it unnecessary for us to
improvise. This inexperience in improvisation can be an enemy in a survival situation. Learn to improvise.
Take a tool designed for a specific purpose and see how many other uses you can make of it.
Learn to use natural objects around you for different needs. An example is using a rock for a hammer.
No matter how complete a survival kit you have with you, it will run out or wear out after a while. Your
imagination must take over when your kit wears out.

V -Value Living
All of us were born kicking and fighting to live, but we have become used to the soft life. We have
become creatures of comfort. We dislike inconveniences and discomforts. What happens when we are
faced with a survival situation with its stresses, inconveniences, and discomforts? This is when the will to
live- placing a high value on living-is vital. The experience and knowledge you have gained through life
and your Army training will have a bearing on your will to live. Stubbornness, a refusal to give in to
problems and obstacles that face you, will give you the mental and physical strength to endure.

A -Act Like the Natives
The natives and animals of a region have adapted to their environment. To get a feel of the area, watch
how the people go about their daily routine. When and what do they eat? When, where, and how do they
get their food? When and where do they go for water? What time do they usually go to bed and get up?
These actions are important to you when you are trying to avoid capture.
Animal life in the area can also give you clues on how to survive. Animals also require food, water, and
shelter. By watching them, you can find sources of water and food.
WARNING
Page 6 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Animals cannot serve as an absolute guide to what you can eat and drink. Many animals eat
plants that are toxic to humans.
Keep in mind that the reaction of animals can reveal your presence to the enemy.
If in a friendly area, one way you can gain rapport with the natives is to show interest in their tools and
how they get food and water. By studying the people, you learn to respect them, you often make
valuable friends, and, most important, you learn how to adapt to their environment and increase your
chances of survival.

L -Live by Your Wits, But for Now, Learn Basic Skills
Without training in basic skills for surviving and evading on the battlefield, your chances of living through
a combat survival and evasion situation are slight.
Learn these basic skills now--not when you are headed for or are in the battle. How you decide to equip
yourself before deployment will impact on whether or not you survive. You need to know about the
environment to which you are going, and you must practice basic skills geared to that environment. For
instance, if you are going to a desert, you need to know how to get water in the desert.
Practice basic survival skills during all training programs and exercises. Survival training reduces fear of
the unknown and gives you self-confidence. It teaches you to live by your wits.

PATTERN FOR SURVIVAL
Develop a survival pattern that lets you beat the enemies of survival. This survival pattern must include
food, water, shelter, fire, first aid, and signals placed in order of importance. For example, in a cold
environment, you would need a fire to get warm; a shelter to protect you from the cold, wind, and rain or
snow; traps or snares to get food; a means to signal friendly aircraft; and first aid to maintain health. If
injured, first aid has top priority no matter what climate you are in.
Change your survival pattern to meet your immediate physical needs as the environment changes.
As you read the rest of this manual, keep in mind the keyword SURVIVAL and the need for a survival
pattern.

Page 7 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

CHAPTER 2 - PSYCHOLOGY OF SURVIVAL

It takes much more than the knowledge and skills to build shelters, get food, make fires,
and travel without the aid of standard navigational devices to live successfully through a
survival situation. Some people with little or no survival training have managed to survive
life-threatening circumstances. Some people with survival training have not used their
skills and died. A key ingredient in any survival situation is the mental attitude of the
individual(s) involved. Having survival skills is important; having the will to survive is
essential. Without a desk to survive, acquired skills serve little purpose and invaluable
knowledge goes to waste.
There is a psychology to survival. The soldier in a survival environment faces many
stresses that ultimately impact on his mind. These stresses can produce thoughts and
emotions that, if poorly understood, can transform a confident, well-trained soldier into an
indecisive, ineffective individual with questionable ability to survive. Thus, every soldier
must be aware of and be able to recognize those stresses commonly associated with
survival. Additionally, it is imperative that soldiers be aware of their reactions to the wide
variety of stresses associated with survival. This chapter will identify and explain the
nature of stress, the stresses of survival, and those internal reactions soldiers will naturally
experience when faced with the stresses of a real-world survival situation. The knowledge
you, the soldier, gain from this chapter and other chapters in this manual, will prepare you
to come through the toughest times alive.

A LOOK AT STRESS
Before we can understand our psychological reactions in a survival setting, it is helpful to first know a
little bit about stress.
Stress is not a disease that you cure and eliminate. Instead, it is a condition we all experience. Stress
can be described as our reaction to pressure. It is the name given to the experience we have as we
physically, mentally, emotionally, and spiritually respond to life's tensions.

Need for Stress
We need stress because it has many positive benefits. Stress provides us with challenges; it gives us
chances to learn about our values and strengths. Stress can show our ability to handle pressure without
breaking; it tests our adaptability and flexibility; it can stimulate us to do our best. Because we usually do
not consider unimportant events stressful, stress can also be an excellent indicator of the significance we
attach to an event--in other words, it highlights what is important to us.
We need to have some stress in our lives, but too much of anything can be bad. The goal is to have
stress, but not an excess of it. Too much stress can take its toll on people and organizations. Too much
stress leads to distress. Distress causes an uncomfortable tension that we try to escape and, preferably,
Page 8 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

avoid. Listed below are a few of the common signs of distress you may find in your fellow soldiers or
yourself when faced with too much stress:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Difficulty making decisions.
Angry outbursts.
Forgetfulness.
Low energy level.
Constant worrying.
Propensity for mistakes.
Thoughts about death or suicide.
Trouble getting along with others.
Withdrawing from others.
Hiding from responsibilities.
Carelessness.

As you can see, stress can be constructive or destructive. It can encourage or discourage, move us
along or stop us dead in our tracks, and make life meaningful or seemingly meaningless. Stress can
inspire you to operate successfully and perform at your maximum efficiency in a survival situation. It can
also cause you to panic and forget all your training. Key to your survival is your ability to manage the
inevitable stresses you will encounter. The survivor is the soldier who works with his stresses instead of
letting his stresses work on him.

Survival Stressors
Any event can lead to stress and, as everyone has experienced, events don't always come one at a time.
Often, stressful events occur simultaneously. These events are not stress, but they produce it and are
called "stressors." Stressors are the obvious cause while stress is the response. Once the body
recognizes the presence of a stressor, it then begins to act to protect itself.
In response to a stressor, the body prepares either to "fight or flee." This preparation involves an internal
SOS sent throughout the body. As the body responds to this SOS, several actions take place. The body
releases stored fuels (sugar and fats) to provide quick energy; breathing rate increases to supply more
oxygen to the blood; muscle tension increases to prepare for action; blood clotting mechanisms are
activated to reduce bleeding from cuts; senses become more acute (hearing becomes more sensitive,
eyes become big, smell becomes sharper) so that you are more aware of your surrounding and heart
rate and blood pressure rise to provide more blood to the muscles. This protective posture lets a person
cope with potential dangers; however, a person cannot maintain such a level of alertness indefinitely.
Stressors are not courteous; one stressor does not leave because another one arrives. Stressors add up.
The cumulative effect of minor stressors can be a major distress if they all happen too close together. As
the body's resistance to stress wears down and the sources of stress continue (or increase), eventually a
state of exhaustion arrives. At this point, the ability to resist stress or use it in a positive way gives out
and signs of distress appear. Anticipating stressors and developing strategies to cope with them are two
ingredients in the effective management of stress. It is therefore essential that the soldier in a survival
setting be aware of the types of stressors he will encounter. Let's take a look at a few of these.
Injury, Illness, or Death
Injury, illness, and death are real possibilities a survivor has to face. Perhaps nothing is more stressful
than being alone in an unfamiliar environment where you could die from hostile action, an accident, or
from eating something lethal. Illness and injury can also add to stress by limiting your ability to maneuver,
get food and drink, find shelter, and defend yourself. Even if illness and injury don't lead to death, they
add to stress through the pain and discomfort they generate. It is only by con-trolling the stress
associated with the vulnerability to injury, illness, and death that a soldier can have the courage to take
the risks associated with survival tasks.
Uncertainly and Lack of Control
Some people have trouble operating in settings where everything is not clear-cut. The only guarantee in
a survival situation is that nothing is guaranteed. It can be extremely stressful operating on limited
Page 9 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

information in a setting where you have limited control of your surroundings. This uncertainty and lack of
control also add to the stress of being ill, injured, or killed.
Environment
Even under the most ideal circumstances, nature is quite formidable. In survival, a soldier will have to
contend with the stressors of weather, terrain, and the variety of creatures inhabiting an area. Heat, cold,
rain, winds, mountains, swamps, deserts, insects, dangerous reptiles, and other animals are just a few of
the challenges awaiting the soldier working to survive. Depending on how a soldier handles the stress of
his environment, his surroundings can be either a source of food and protection or can be a cause of
extreme discomfort leading to injury, illness, or death.
Hunger and Thirst
Without food and water a person will weaken and eventually die. Thus, getting and preserving food and
water takes on increasing importance as the length of time in a survival setting increases. For a soldier
used to having his provisions issued, foraging can be a big source of stress.
Fatigue
Forcing yourself to continue surviving is not easy as you grow more tired. It is possible to become so
fatigued that the act of just staying awake is stressful in itself.
Isolation
There are some advantages to facing adversity with others. As soldiers we learn individual skills, but we
train to function as part of a team. Although we, as soldiers, complain about higher headquarters, we
become used to the information and guidance it provides, especially during times of confusion. Being in
contact with others also provides a greater sense of security and a feeling someone is available to help if
problems occur. A significant stressor in survival situations is that often a person or team has to rely
solely on its own resources.
The survival stressors mentioned in this section are by no means the only ones you may face.
Remember, what is stressful to one person may not be stressful to another. Your experiences, training,
personal outlook on life, physical and mental conditioning, and level of self-confidence contribute to what
you will find stressful in a survival environment. The object is not to avoid stress, but rather to manage
the stressors of survival and make them work for you.
We now have a general knowledge of stress and the stressors common to survival; the next step is to
examine our reactions to the stressors we may face.

NATURAL REACTIONS
Man has been able to survive many shifts in his environment throughout the centuries. His ability to
adapt physically and mentally to a changing world kept him alive while other species around him
gradually died off. The same survival mechanisms that kept our forefathers alive can help keep us alive
as well! However, these survival mechanisms that can help us can also work against us if we don't
understand and anticipate their presence.
It is not surprising that the average person will have some psychological reactions in a survival situation.
We will now examine some of the major internal reactions you and anyone with you might experience
with the survival stressors addressed in the earlier paragraphs. Let's begin.
Fear
Fear is our emotional response to dangerous circumstances that we believe have the potential to cause
death, injury, or illness. This harm is not just limited to physical damage; the threat to one's emotional
and mental well-being can generate fear as well. For the soldier trying to survive, fear can have a
positive function if it encourages him to be cautious in situations where recklessness could result in
injury. Unfortunately, fear can also immobilize a person. It can cause him to become so frightened that
he fails to perform activities essential for survival. Most soldiers will have some degree of fear when
placed in unfamiliar surroundings under adverse conditions. There is no shame in this! Each soldier must
train himself not to be overcome by his fears. Ideally, through realistic training, we can acquire the
knowledge and skills needed to increase our confidence and thereby manage our fears.
Anxiety
Associated with fear is anxiety. Because it is natural for us to be afraid, it is also natural for us to
experience anxiety. Anxiety can be an uneasy, apprehensive feeling we get when faced with dangerous
situations (physical, mental, and emotional). When used in a healthy way, anxiety urges us to act to end,
Page 10 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

or at least master, the dangers that threaten our existence. If we were never anxious, there would be little
motivation to make changes in our lives. The soldier in a survival setting reduces his anxiety by
performing those tasks that will ensure his coming through the ordeal alive. As he reduces his anxiety,
the soldier is also bringing under control the source of that anxiety--his fears. In this form, anxiety is
good; however, anxiety can also have a devastating impact. Anxiety can overwhelm a soldier to the point
where he becomes easily confused and has difficulty thinking. Once this happens, it becomes more and
more difficult for him to make good judgments and sound decisions. To survive, the soldier must learn
techniques to calm his anxieties and keep them in the range where they help, not hurt.

Anger and Frustration
Frustration arises when a person is continually thwarted in his attempts to reach a goal. The goal of
survival is to stay alive until you can reach help or until help can reach you. To achieve this goal, the
soldier must complete some tasks with minimal resources. It is inevitable, in trying to do these tasks, that
something will go wrong; that something will happen beyond the soldier's control; and that with one's life
at stake, every mistake is magnified in terms of its importance. Thus, sooner or later, soldiers will have to
cope with frustration when a few of their plans run into trouble. One outgrowth of this frustration is anger.
There are many events in a survival situation that can frustrate or anger a soldier. Getting lost, damaged
or forgotten equipment, the weather, inhospitable terrain, enemy patrols, and physical limitations are just
a few sources of frustration and anger. Frustration and anger encourage impulsive reactions, irrational
behavior, poorly thought-out decisions, and, in some insta nces, an "I quit" attitude (people sometimes
avoid doing something they can't master). If the soldier can harness and properly channel the emotional
intensity associated with anger and frustration, he can productively act as he answers the challenges of
survival. If the soldier does not properly focus his angry feelings, he can waste much energy in activities
that do little to further either his chances of survival or the chances of those around him.

Depression
It would be a rare person indeed who would not get sad, at least momentarily, when faced with the
privations of survival. As this sadness deepens, we label the feeling "depression." Depression is closely
linked with frustration and anger. The frustrated person becomes more and more angry as he fails to
reach his goals. If the anger does not help the person to succeed, then the frustration level goes even
higher. A destructive cycle between anger and frustration continues until the person becomes worn
down-physically, emotionally, and mentally. When a person reaches this point, he starts to give up, and
his focus shifts from "What can I do" to "There is nothing I can do." Depression is an expression of this
hopeless, helpless feeling. There is nothing wrong with being sad as you temporarily think about your
loved ones and remember what life is like back in "civilization" or "the world." Such thoughts, in fact, can
give you the desire to try harder and live one more day. On the other hand, if you allow yours elf to sink
into a depressed state, then it can sap all your energy and, more important, your will to survive. It is
imperative that each soldier resist succumbing to depression.

Loneliness and Boredom
Man is a social animal. This means we, as human beings, enjoy the company of others. Very few people
want to be alone all the time! As you are aware, there is a distinct chance of isolation in a survival setting.
This is not bad. Loneliness and boredom can bring to the surface qualities you thought only others had.
The extent of your imagination and creativity may surprise you. When required to do so, you may
discover some hidden talents and abilities. Most of all, you may tap into a reservoir of inner strength and
fortitude you never knew you had. Conversely, loneliness and boredom can be another source of
depression. As a soldier surviving alone, or with others, you must find ways to keep your mind
productively occupied. Additionally, you must develop a degree of self-sufficiency. You must have faith in
your capability to "go it alone."
Page 11 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Guilt
The circumstances leading to your being in a survival setting are sometimes dramatic and tragic. It may
be the result of an accident or military mission where there was a loss of life. Perhaps you were the only,
or one of a few, survivors. While naturally relieved to be alive, you simultaneously may be mourning the
deaths of others who were less fortunate. It is not uncommon for survivors to feel guilty about being
spared from death while others were not. This feeling, when used in a positive way, has encouraged
people to try harder to survive with the belief they were allowed to live for some greater purpose in life.
Sometimes, survivors tried to stay alive so that they could carry on the work of those killed. Whatever
reason you give yourself, do not let guilt feelings prevent you from living. The living who abandon their
chance to survive accomplish nothing. Such an act would be the greatest tragedy.

PREPARING YOURSELF
Your mission as a soldier in a survival situation is to stay alive. As you can see, you are going to
experience an assortment of thoughts and emotions. These can work for you, or they can work to your
downfall. Fear, anxiety, anger, frustration, guilt, depression, and loneliness are all possible reactions to
the many stresses common to survival. These reactions, when controlled in a healthy way, help to
increase a soldier's likelihood of surviving. They prompt the soldier to pay more attention in training, to
fight back when scared, to take actions that ensure sustenance and security, to keep faith with his fellow
soldiers, and to strive against large odds. When the survivor cannot control these reactions in a healthy
way, they can bring him to a standstill. Instead of rallying his internal resources, the soldier listens to his
internal fears. This soldier experiences psychological defeat long before he physically succumbs.
Remember, survival is natural to everyone; being unexpectedly thrust into the life and death struggle of
survival is not. Don't be afraid of your "natural reactions to this unnatural situation." Prepare yourself to
rule over these reactions so they serve your ultimate interest--staying alive with the honor and dignity
associated with being an American soldier.
It involves preparation to ensure that your reactions in a survival setting are productive, not destructive.
The challenge of survival has produced countless examples of heroism, courage, and self-sacrifice.
These are the qualities it can bring out in you if you have prepared yourself. Below are a few tips to help
prepare yourself psychologically for survival. Through studying this manual and attending survival
training you can develop the survival attitude.

Know Yourself
Through training, family, and friends take the time to discover who you are on the inside. Strengthen your
stronger qualities and develop the areas that you know are necessary to survive.

Anticipate Fears
Don't pretend that you will have no fears. Begin thinking about what would frighten you the most if forced
to survive alone. Train in those areas of concern to you. The goal is not to eliminate the fear, but to build
confidence in your ability to function despite your fears.

Be Realistic
Don't be afraid to make an honest appraisal of situations. See circumstances as they are, not as you
want them to be. Keep your hopes and expectations within the estimate of the situation. When you go
into a survival setting with unrealistic expectations, you may be laying the groundwork for bitter
disappointment. Follow the adage, "Hope for the best, prepare for the worst." It is much easier to adjust
to pleasant surprises about one's unexpected good fortunes than to be upset by one's unexpected harsh
circumstances.

Adopt a Positive Attitude
Page 12 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Learn to see the potential good in everything. Looking for the good not only boosts morale, it also is
excellent for exercising your imagination and creativity.

Remind Yourself What Is at Stake
Remember, failure to prepare yourself psychologically to cope with survival leads to reactions such as
depression, carelessness, inattention, loss of confidence, poor decision-making, and giving up before the
body gives in. At stake is your life and the lives of others who are depending on you to do your share.

Train
Through military training and life experiences, begin today to prepare yourself to cope with the rigors of
survival. Demonstrating your skills in training will give you the confidence to call upon them should the
need arise. Remember, the more realistic the training, the less overwhelming an actual survival setting
will be.

Learn Stress Management Techniques
People under stress have a potential to panic if they are not well-trained and not prepared
psychologically to face whatever the circumstances may be. While we often cannot control the survival
circumstances in which we find ourselves, it is within our ability to control our response to those
circumstances. Learning stress management techniques can enhance significantly your capability to
remain calm and focused as you work to keep yourself and others alive. A few good techniques to
develop include relaxation skills, time management skills, assertiveness skills, and cognitive restructuring
skills (the ability to control how you view a situation).
Remember, "the will to survive" can also be considered to be "the refusal to give up."

Page 13 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

CHAPTER 3 - SURVIVAL PLANNING AND SURVIVAL KITS

Survival planning is nothing more than realizing something could happen that would put you in a survival
situation and, with that in mind, taking steps to increase your chances of survival. Thus, survival planning
means preparation. Preparation means having survival items and knowing how to use them People who
live in snow regions prepare their vehicles for poor road conditions. They put snow tires on their vehicles,
add extra weight in the back for traction, and they carry a shovel, salt, and a blanket. Another example of
preparation is finding the emergency exits on an aircraft when you board it for a flight. Preparation could
also mean knowing your intended route of travel and familiarizing yourself with the area. Finally,
emergency planning is essential.

IMPORTANCE OF PLANNING
Detailed prior planning is essential in potential survival situations. Including survival considerations in
mission planning will enhance your chances of survival if an emergency occurs. For example, if your job
re-quires that you work in a small, enclosed area that limits what you can carry on your person, plan
where you can put your rucksack or your load-bearing equipment. Put it where it will not prevent you
from getting out of the area quickly, yet where it is readily accessible.
One important aspect of prior planning is preventive medicine. Ensuring that you have no dental
problems and that your immunizations are current will help you avoid potential dental or health problems.
A dental problem in a survival situation will reduce your ability to cope with other problems that you face.
Failure to keep your shots current may mean your body is not immune to diseases that are prevalent in
the area.
Preparing and carrying a survival kit is as important as the considerations mentioned above. All Army
aircraft normally have survival kits on board for the type area(s) over which they will fly. There are kits for
over-water survival, for hot climate survival, and an aviator survival vest (see Appendix A for a
description of these survival kits and their contents). If you are not an aviator, you will probably not have
access to the survival vests or survival kits. However, if you know what these kits contain, it will help you
to plan and to prepare your own survival kit.
Even the smallest survival kit, if properly prepared, is invaluable when faced with a survival problem.
Before making your survival kit, however, consider your unit's mission, the operational environment, and
the equipment and vehicles assigned to your unit.

SURVIVAL KITS
The environment is the key to the types of items you will need in your survival kit. How much equipment
you put in your kit depends on how you will carry the kit. A kit carried on your body will have to be smaller
than one carried in a vehicle. Always layer your survival kit, keeping the most important items on your
body. For example, your map and compass should always be on your body. Carry less important items
on your load-bearing equipment. Place bulky items in the rucksack.
In preparing your survival kit, select items you can use for more than one purpose. If you have two items
that will serve the same function, pick the one you can use for another function. Do not duplicate items,
as this increases your kit's size and weight.
Your survival kit need not be elaborate. You need only functional items that will meet your needs and a
case to hold the items. For the case, you might want to use a Band-Aid box, a first aid case, an
ammunition pouch, or another suitable case. This case should be--

Page 14 of 233

FM 21-76

•
•
•
•

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Water repellent or waterproof.
Easy to carry or attach to your body.
Suitable to accept varisized components.
Durable.

In your survival kit, you should have-•
•
•
•
•
•

First aid items.
Water purification tablets or drops.
Fire starting equipment.
Signaling items.
Food procurement items.
Shelter items.

Some examples of these items are-•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Lighter, metal match, waterproof matches.
Snare wire.
Signaling mirror.
Wrist compass.
Fish and snare line.
Fishhooks.
Candle.
Small hand lens.
Oxytetracycline tablets (diarrhea or infection).
Water purification tablets.
Solar blanket.
Surgical blades.
Butterfly sutures.
Condoms for water storage.
Chap Stick.
Needle and thread.
Knife.

Include a weapon only if the situation so dictates. Read about and practice the survival techniques in this
manual. Consider your unit's mission and the environment in which your unit will operate. Then prepare
your survival kit.

Page 15 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

CHAPTER 4 - BASIC SURVIVAL MEDICINE

Foremost among the many problems that can compromise a survivor's ability to return to
safety are medical problems resulting from parachute descent and landing, extreme
climates, ground combat, evasion, and illnesses contracted in captivity.
Many evaders and survivors have reported difficulty in treating injuries and illness due to
the lack of training and medical supplies. For some, this led to capture or surrender.
Survivors have related feeling of apathy and helplessness because they could not treat
themselves in this environment. The ability to treat themselves increased their morale and
cohesion and aided in their survival and eventual return to friendly forces.
One man with a fair amount of basic medical knowledge can make a difference in the lives
of many. Without qualified medical personnel available, it is you who must know what to
do to stay alive.

REQUIREMENTS FOR MAINTENANCE OF HEALTH
To survive, you need water and food. You must also have and apply high personal hygiene standards.

Water
Your body loses water through normal body processes (sweating, urinating, and defecating). During
average daily exertion when the atmospheric temperature is 20 degrees Celsius (C) (68 degrees
Fahrenheit), the average adult loses and therefore requires 2 to 3 liters of water daily. Other factors, such
as heat exposure, cold exposure, intense activity, high altitude, burns, or illness, can cause your body to
lose more water. You must replace this water.
Dehydration results from inadequate replacement of lost body fluids. It decreases your efficiency and, if
injured, increases your susceptibility to severe shock. Consider the following results of body fluid loss:
•
•
•
•

A 5 percent loss of body fluids results in thirst, irritability, nausea, and weakness.
A 10 percent loss results in dizziness, headache, inability to walk, and a tingling sensation in the
limbs.
A 15 percent loss results in dim vision, painful urination, swollen tongue, deafness, and a numb
feeling in the skin.
A loss greater than 15 percent of body fluids may result in death.

The most common signs and symptoms of dehydration are-•

Dark urine with a very strong odor.
Page 16 of 233

FM 21-76

•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Low urine output.
Dark, sunken eyes.
Fatigue.
Emotional instability.
Loss of skin elasticity.
Delayed capillary refill in fingernail beds.
Trench line down center of tongue.
Thirst. Last on the list because you are already 2 percent dehydrated by the time you crave fluids.

You replace the water as you lose it. Trying to make up a deficit is difficult in a survival situation, and
thirst is not a sign of how much water you need.
Most people cannot comfortably drink more than 1 liter of water at a time. So, even when not thirsty,
drink small amounts of water at regular intervals each hour to prevent dehydration.
If you are under physical and mental stress or subject to severe conditions, increase your water intake.
Drink enough liquids to maintain a urine output of at least 0.5 liter every 24 hours.
In any situation where food intake is low, drink 6 to 8 liters of water per day. In an extreme climate,
especially an arid one, the average person can lose 2.5 to 3.5 liters of water per hour. In this type of
climate, you should drink 14 to 30 liters of water per day.
With the loss of water there is also a loss of electrolytes (body salts). The average diet can usually keep
up with these losses but in an extreme situation or illness, additional sources need to be provided. A
mixture of 0.25 teaspoon of salt to 1 liter of water will provide a concentration that the body tissues can
readily absorb.
Of all the physical problems encountered in a survival situation, the loss of water is the most preventable.
The following are basic guidelines for the prevention of dehydration:
•
•
•
•

Always drink water when eating. Water is used and consumed as a part of the digestion process
and can lead to dehydration.
Acclimatize. The body performs more efficiently in extreme conditions when acclimatized.
Conserve sweat not water. Limit sweat-producing activities but drink water.
Ration water. Until you find a suitable source, ration your water sensibly. A daily intake of 500
cubic centimeter (0.5 liter) of a sugar-water mixture (2 teaspoons per liter) will suffice to prevent
severe dehydration for at least a week, provided you keep water losses to a minimum by limiting
activity and heat gain or loss.

You can estimate fluid loss by several means. A standard field dressing holds about 0.25 liter (one-fourth
canteen) of blood. A soaked T-shirt holds 0.5 to 0.75 liter.
You can also use the pulse and breathing rate to estimate fluid loss. Use the following as a guide:
•
•
•

With a 0.75 liter loss the wrist pulse rate will be under 100 beats per minute and the breathing
rate 12 to 20 breaths per minute.
With a 0.75 to 1.5 liter loss the pulse rate will be 100 to 120 beats per minute and 20 to 30
breaths per minute.
With a 1.5 to 2 liter loss the pulse rate will be 120 to 140 beats per minute and 30 to 40 breaths
per minute. Vital signs above these rates require more advanced care.

Food
Although you can live several weeks without food, you need an adequate amount to stay healthy.
Without food your mental and physical capabilities will deteriorate rapidly, and you will become weak.
Food replenishes the substances that your body burns and provides energy. It provides vitamins,
minerals, salts, and other elements essential to good health. Possibly more important, it helps morale.
The two basic sources of food are plants and animals (including fish). In varying degrees both provide
the calories, carbohydrates, fats, and proteins needed for normal daily body functions.
Page 17 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Calories are a measure of heat and potential energy. The average person needs 2,000 calories per day
to function at a minimum level. An adequate amount of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins without an
adequate caloric intake will lead to starvation and cannibalism of the body's own tissue for energy.

Plant Foods
These foods provide carbohydrates--the main source of energy. Many plants provide enough protein to
keep the body at normal efficiency. Although plants may not provide a balanced diet, they will sustain
you even in the arctic, where meat's heat-producing qualities are normally essential. Many plant foods
such as nuts and seeds will give you enough protein and oils for normal efficiency. Roots, green
vegetables, and plant food containing natural sugar will provide calories and carbohydrates that give the
body natural energy.
The food value of plants becomes more and more important if you are eluding the enemy or if you are in
an area where wildlife is scarce. For instance-•
•

You can dry plants by wind, air, sun, or fire. This retards spoilage so that you can store or carry
the plant food with you to use when needed.
You can obtain plants more easily and more quietly than meat. This is extremely important when
the enemy is near.

Animal Foods
Meat is more nourishing than plant food. In fact, it may even be more readily available in some places.
However, to get meat, you need to know the habits of, and how to capture, the various wildlife.
To satisfy your immediate food needs, first seek the more abundant and more easily obtained wildlife,
such as insects, crustaceans, mollusks, fish, and reptiles. These can satisfy your immediate hunger while
you are preparing traps and snares for larger game.

Personal Hygiene
In any situation, cleanliness is an important factor in preventing infection and disease. It becomes even
more important in a survival situation. Poor hygiene can reduce your chances of survival.
A daily shower with hot water and soap is ideal, but you can stay clean without this luxury. Use a cloth
and soapy water to wash yourself. Pay special attention to the feet, armpits, crotch, hands, and hair as
these are prime areas for infestation and infection. If water is scarce, take an "air" bath. Remove as
much of your clothing as practical and expose your body to the sun and air for at least 1 hour. Be careful
not to sunburn.
If you don't have soap, use ashes or sand, or make soap from animal fat and wood ashes, if your
situation allows. To make soap-•
•
•
•
•
•

•
•

Extract grease from animal fat by cutting the fat into small pieces and cooking them in a pot.
Add enough water to the pot to keep the fat from sticking as it cooks.
Cook the fat slowly, stirring frequently.
After the fat is rendered, pour the grease into a container to harden.
Place ashes in a container with a spout near the bottom.
Pour water over the ashes and collect the liquid that drips out of the spout in a separate
container. This liquid is the potash or lye. Another way to get the lye is to pour the slurry (the
mixture of ashes and water) through a straining cloth.
In a cooking pot, mix two parts grease to one part potash.
Place this mixture over a fire and boil it until it thickens.

After the mixture--the soap--cools, you can use it in the semiliquid state directly from the pot. You can
also pour it into a pan, allow it to harden, and cut it into bars for later use.
Page 18 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Keep Your Hands Clean
Germs on your hands can infect food and wounds. Wash your hands after handling any material that is
likely to carry germs, after visiting the latrine, after caring for the sick, and before handling any food, food
utensils, or drinking water. Keep your fingernails closely trimmed and clean, and keep your fingers out of
your mouth.

Keep Your Hair Clean
Your hair can become a haven for bacteria or fleas, lice, and other parasites. Keeping your hair clean,
combed, and trimmed helps you avoid this danger.

Keep Your Clothing Clean
Keep your clothing and bedding as clean as possible to reduce the chance of skin infection as well as to
decrease the danger of parasitic infestation. Clean your outer clothing whenever it becomes soiled. Wear
clean underclothing and socks each day. If water is scarce, "air" clean your clothing by shaking, airing,
and sunning it for 2 hours. If you are using a sleeping bag, turn it inside out after each use, fluff it, and air
it.

Keep Your Teeth Clean
Thoroughly clean your mouth and teeth with a toothbrush at least once each day. If you don't have a
toothbrush, make a chewing stick. Find a twig about 20 centimeters long and 1 centimeter wide. Chew
one end of the stick to separate the fibers. Now brush your teeth thoroughly. Another way is to wrap a
clean strip of cloth around your fingers and rub your teeth with it to wipe away food particles. You can
also brush your teeth with small amounts of sand, baking soda, salt, or soap. Then rinse your mouth with
water, salt water, or willow bark tea. Also, flossing your teeth with string or fiber helps oral hygiene.
If you have cavities, you can make temporary fillings by placing candle wax, tobacco, aspirin, hot pepper,
tooth paste or powder, or portions of a ginger root into the cavity. Make sure you clean the cavity by
rinsing or picking the particles out of the cavity before placing a filling in the cavity.

Take Care of Your Feet
To prevent serious foot problems, break in your shoes before wearing them on any mission. Wash and
massage your feet daily. Trim your toenails straight across. Wear an insole and the proper size of dry
socks. Powder and check your feet daily for blisters.
If you get a small blister, do not open it. An intact blister is safe from infection. Apply a padding material
around the blister to relieve pressure and reduce friction. If the blister bursts, treat it as an open wound.
Clean and dress it daily and pad around it. Leave large blisters intact. To avoid having the blister burst or
tear under pressure and cause a painful and open sore, do the following:
•
•
•

•

Obtain a sewing-type needle and a clean or sterilized thread.
Run the needle and thread through the blister after cleaning the blister.
Detach the needle and leave both ends of the thread hanging out of the blister. The thread will
absorb the liquid inside. This reduces the size of the hole and ensures that the hole does not
close up.
Pad around the blister.

Get Sufficient Rest

Page 19 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

You need a certain amount of rest to keep going. Plan for regular rest periods of at least 10 minutes per
hour during your daily activities. Learn to make yourself comfortable under less than ideal conditions. A
change from mental to physical activity or vice versa can be refreshing when time or situation does not
permit total relaxation.

Keep Camp Site Clean
Do not soil the ground in the camp site area with urine or feces. Use latrines, if available. When latrines
are not available, dig "cat holes" and cover the waste. Collect drinking water upstream from the camp
site. Purify all water.

MEDICAL EMERGENCIES
Medical problems and emergencies you may be faced with include breathing problems, severe bleeding,
and shock.

Breathing Problems
Any one of the following can cause airway obstruction, resulting in stopped breathing:
•
•
•
•
•

Foreign matter in mouth of throat that obstructs the opening to the trachea.
Face or neck injuries.
Inflammation and swelling of mouth and throat caused by inhaling smoke, flames, and irritating
vapors or by an allergic reaction.
"Kink" in the throat (caused by the neck bent forward so that the chin rests upon the chest) may
block the passage of air.
Tongue blocks passage of air to the lungs upon unconsciousness. When an individual is
unconscious, the muscles of the lower jaw and tongue relax as the neck drops forward, causing
the lower jaw to sag and the tongue to drop back and block the passage of air.

Severe Bleeding
Severe bleeding from any major blood vessel in the body is extremely dangerous. The loss of 1 liter of
blood will produce moderate symptoms of shock. The loss of 2 liters will produce a severe state of shock
that places the body in extreme danger. The loss of 3 liters is usually fatal.

Shock
Shock (acute stress reaction) is not a disease in itself. It is a clinical condition characterized by
symptoms that arise when cardiac output is insufficient to fill the arteries with blood under enough
pressure to provide an adequate blood supply to the organs and tissues.

LIFESAVING STEPS
Control panic, both your own and the victim's. Reassure him and try to keep him quiet.
Perform a rapid physical exam. Look for the cause of the injury and follow the ABCs of first aid, starting
with the airway and breathing, but be discerning. A person may die from arterial bleeding more quickly
than from an airway obstruction in some cases.

Open Airway and Maintain
You can open an airway and maintain it by using the following steps.
Step 1. Check if the victim has a partial or complete airway obstruction. If he can cough or speak, allow
him to clear the obstruction naturally. Stand by, reassure the victim, and be ready to clear his airway and
Page 20 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

perform mouth-to-mouth resuscitation should he become unconscious. If his airway is completely
obstructed, administer abdominal thrusts until the obstruction is cleared.
Step 2. Using a finger, quickly sweep the victim's mouth clear of any foreign objects, broken teeth,
dentures, sand.
Step 3. Using the jaw thrust method, grasp the angles of the victim's lower jaw and lift with both hands,
one on each side, moving the jaw forward. For stability, rest your elbows on the surface on which the
victim is lying. If his lips are closed, gently open the lower lip with your thumb (Figure 4-1).

Step 4. With the victim's airway open, pinch his nose closed with your thumb and forefinger and blow two
complete breaths into his lungs. Allow the lungs to deflate after the second inflation and perform the
following:
•
•
•

Look for his chest to rise and fall.
Listen for escaping air during exhalation.
Feel for flow of air on your cheek.

Step 5. If the forced breaths do not stimulate spontaneous breathing, maintain the victim's breathing by
performing mouth-to-mouth resuscitation.
Step 6. There is danger of the victim vomiting during mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. Check the victim's
mouth periodically for vomit and clear as needed.
Note: Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) may be necessary after cleaning the airway,
but only after major bleeding is under control. See FM 21-20, the American Heart
Association manual, the Red Cross manual, or most other first aid books for detailed
instructions on CPR.

Control Bleeding
In a survival situation, you must control serious bleeding immediately because replacement fluids
normally are not available and the victim can die within a matter of minutes. External bleeding falls into
the following classifications (according to its source):
•

Arterial. Blood vessels called arteries carry blood away from the heart and through the body. A
cut artery issues bright red blood from the wound in distinct spurts or pulses that correspond to
the rhythm of the heartbeat. Because the blood in the arteries is under high pressure, an
individual can lose a large volume of blood in a short period when damage to an artery of
significant size occurs. Therefore, arterial bleeding is the most serious type of bleeding. If not
controlled promptly, it can be fatal.

Page 21 of 233

FM 21-76

•

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Venous. Venous blood is blood that is returning to the heart through blood vessels called veins. A
steady flow of dark red, maroon, or bluish blood characterizes bleeding from a vein. You can
usually control venous bleeding more easily than arterial bleeding.
Capillary. The capillaries are the extremely small vessels that connect the arteries with the veins.
Capillary bleeding most commonly occurs in minor cuts and scrapes. This type of bleeding is not
difficult to control.

You can control external bleeding by direct pressure, indirect (pressure points) pressure, elevation,
digital ligation, or tourniquet.

Direct Pressure
The most effective way to control external bleeding is by applying pressure directly over the wound. This
pressure must not only be firm enough to stop the bleeding, but it must also be maintained long enough
to "seal off" the damaged surface.
If bleeding continues after having applied direct pressure for 30 minutes, apply a pressure dressing. This
dressing consists of a thick dressing of gauze or other suitable material applied directly over the wound
and held in place with a tightly wrapped bandage (Figure 4-2). It should be tighter than an ordinary
compression bandage but not so tight that it impairs circulation to the rest of the limb. Once you apply the
dressing, do not remove it, even when the dressing becomes blood soaked.

Page 22 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Leave the pressure dressing in place for 1 or 2 days, after which you can remove and replace it with a
smaller dressing.
In the long-term survival environment, make fresh, daily dressing changes and inspect for signs of
infection.

Elevation
Raising an injured extremity as high as possible above the heart's level slows blood loss by aiding the
return of blood to the heart and lowering the blood pressure at the wound. However, elevation alone will
not control bleeding entirely; you must also apply direct pressure over the wound. When treating a
snakebite, however, keep the extremity lower than the heart.

Pressure Points
A pressure point is a location where the main artery to the wound lies near the surface of the skin or
where the artery passes directly over a bony prominence (Figure 4-3). You can use digital pressure on a
pressure point to slow arterial bleeding until the application of a pressure dressing. Pressure point control
is not as effective for controlling bleeding as direct pressure exerted on the wound. It is rare when a
single major compressible artery supplies a damaged vessel.

If you cannot remember the exact location of the pressure points, follow this rule: Apply pressure at the
end of the joint just above the injured area. On hands, feet, and head, this will be the wrist, ankle, and
neck, respectively.
WARNING
Use caution when applying pressure to the neck. Too much pressure for too long may cause
unconsciousness or death. Never place a tourniquet around the neck.
Maintain pressure points by placing a round stick in the joint, bending the joint over the stick, and then
keeping it tightly bent by lashing. By using this method to maintain pressure, it frees your hands to work
in other areas.
Page 23 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Digital Ligation
You can stop major bleeding immediately or slow it down by applying pressure with a finger or two on the
bleeding end of the vein or artery. Maintain the pressure until the bleeding stops or slows down enough
to apply a pressure bandage, elevation, and so forth.

Tourniquet
Use a tourniquet only when direct pressure over the bleeding point and all other methods did not control
the bleeding. If you leave a tourniquet in place too long, the damage to the tissues can progress to
gangrene, with a loss of the limb later. An improperly applied tourniquet can also cause permanent
damage to nerves and other tissues at the site of the constriction.
If you must use a tourniquet, place it around the extremity, between the wound and the heart, 5 to 10
centimeters above the wound site (Figure 4-4). Never place it directly over the wound or a fracture. Use a
stick as a handle to tighten the tourniquet and tighten it only enough to stop blood flow. When you have
tightened the tourniquet, bind the free end of the stick to the limb to prevent unwinding.

Page 24 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

After you secure the tourniquet, clean and bandage the wound. A lone survivor does not remove or
release an applied tourniquet. In a buddy system, however, the buddy can release the tourniquet
pressure every 10 to 15 minutes for 1 or 2 minutes to let blood flow to the rest of the extremity to prevent
limb loss.

Prevent and Treat Shock
Anticipate shock in all injured personnel. Treat all injured persons as follows, regardless of what
symptoms appear (Figure 4-5):
•
•

If the victim is conscious, place him on a level surface with the lower extremities elevated 15 to 20
centimeters.
If the victim is unconscious, place him on his side or abdomen with his head turned to one side to
prevent choking on vomit, blood, or other fluids.
Page 25 of 233

FM 21-76

•
•
•
•
•

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

If you are unsure of the best position, place the victim perfectly flat. Once the victim is in a shock
position, do not move him.
Maintain body heat by insulating the victim from the surroundings and, in some instances,
applying external heat.
If wet, remove all the victim's wet clothing as soon as possible and replace with dry clothing.
Improvise a shelter to insulate the victim from the weather.
Use warm liquids or foods, a prewarmed sleeping bag, another person, warmed water in
canteens, hot rocks wrapped in clothing, or fires on either side of the victim to provide external
warmth.
If the victim is conscious, slowly administer small doses of a warm salt or sugar solution, if
available.
If the victim is unconscious or has abdominal wounds, do not give fluids by mouth.
Have the victim rest for at least 24 hours.
If you are a lone survivor, lie in a depression in the ground, behind a tree, or any other place out
of the weather, with your head lower than your feet.
If you are with a buddy, reassess your patient constantly.

Page 26 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

BONE AND JOINT INJURY
You could face bone and joint injuries that include fractures, dislocations, and sprains.

Fractures
There are basically two types of fractures: open and closed. With an open (or compound) fracture, the
bone protrudes through the skin and complicates the actual fracture with an open wound. After setting
the fracture, treat the wound as any other open wound.
The closed fracture has no open wounds. Follow the guidelines for immobilization, and set and splint the
fracture.
The signs and symptoms of a fracture are pain, tenderness, discoloration, swelling deformity, loss of
function, and grating (a sound or feeling that occurs when broken bone ends rub together).
Page 27 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

The dangers with a fracture are the severing or the compression of a nerve or blood vessel at the site of
fracture. For this reason minimum manipulation should be done, and only very cautiously. If you notice
the area below the break becoming numb, swollen, cool to the touch, or turning pale, and the victim
shows signs of shock, a major vessel may have been severed. You must control this internal bleeding.
Rest the victim for shock, and replace lost fluids.
Often you must maintain traction during the splinting and healing process. You can effectively pull
smaller bones such as the arm or lower leg by hand. You can create traction by wedging a hand or foot
in the V-notch of a tree and pushing against the tree with the other extremity. You can then splint the
break.
Very strong muscles hold a broken thighbone (femur) in place making it difficult to maintain traction
during healing. You can make an improvised traction splint using natural material (Figure 4-6) as follows:
•

•

Get two forked branches or saplings at least 5 centimeters in diameter. Measure one from the
patient's armpit to 20 to 30 centimeters past his unbroken leg. Measure the other from the groin
to 20 to 30 centimeters past the unbroken leg. Ensure that both extend an equal distance beyond
the end of the leg.
Pad the two splints. Notch the ends without forks and lash a 20- to 30-centimeter cross member
made from a 5-centimeter diameter branch between them.

Using available material (vines, cloth, rawhide), tie the splint around the upper portion of the body and
down the length of the broken leg. Follow the splinting guidelines.
•
•
•
•

With available material, fashion a wrap that will extend around the ankle, with the two free ends
tied to the cross member.
Place a 10- by 2.5-centimeter stick in the middle of the free ends of the ankle wrap between the
cross member and the foot. Using the stick, twist the material to make the traction easier.
Continue twisting until the broken leg is as long or slightly longer than the unbroken leg.
Lash the stick to maintain traction.
Note: Over time you may lose traction because the material weakened. Check the traction
periodically. If you must change or repair the splint, maintain the traction manually for a
short time.

Page 28 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Dislocations
Dislocations are the separations of bone joints causing the bones to go out of proper alignment. These
misalignments can be extremely painful and can cause an impairment of nerve or circulatory function
below the area affected. You must place these joints back into alignment as quickly as possible.
Signs and symptoms of dislocations are joint pain, tenderness, swelling, discoloration, limited range of
motion, and deformity of the joint. You treat dislocations by reduction, immobilization, and rehabilitation.
Reduction or "setting" is placing the bones back into their proper alignment. You can use several
methods, but manual traction or the use of weights to pull the bones are the safest and easiest. Once
performed, reduction decreases the victim's pain and allows for normal function and circulation. Without
an X ray, you can judge proper alignment by the look and feel of the joint and by comparing it to the joint
on the opposite side.
Immobilization is nothing more than splinting the dislocation after reduction. You can use any fieldexpedient material for a splint or you can splint an extremity to the body. The basic guidelines for
splinting are-•
•
•

Splint above and below the fracture site.
Pad splints to reduce discomfort.
Check circulation below the fracture after making each tie on the splint.

To rehabilitate the dislocation, remove the splints after 7 to 14 days. Gradually use the injured joint until
fully healed.

Sprains
The accidental overstretching of a tendon or ligament causes sprains. The signs and symptoms are pain,
swelling, tenderness, and discoloration (black and blue).
When treating sprains, think RICE-R Rest injured area.
Page 29 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

I
-

Ice for 24 hours, then heat after that.

C
-

Compression-wrapping and/or splinting to help stabilize. If possible, leave the boot on a
sprained ankle unless circulation is compromised.

E
-

Elevation of the affected area.

BITES AND STINGS
Insects and related pests are hazards in a survival situation. They not only cause irritations, but they are
often carriers of diseases that cause severe allergic reactions in some individuals. In many parts of the
world you will be exposed to serious, even fatal, diseases not encountered in the United States.
Ticks can carry and transmit diseases, such as Rocky Mountain spotted fever common in many parts of
the United States. Ticks also transmit the Lyme disease.
Mosquitoes may carry malaria, dengue, and many other diseases.
Flies can spread disease from contact with infectious sources. They are causes of sleeping sickness,
typhoid, cholera, and dysentery.
Fleas can transmit plague.
Lice can transmit typhus and relapsing fever.
The best way to avoid the complications of insect bites and stings is to keep immunizations (including
booster shots) up-to-date, avoid insect-infested areas, use netting and insect repellent, and wear all
clothing properly.
If you get bitten or stung, do not scratch the bite or sting, it might become infected. Inspect your body at
least once a day to ensure there are no insects attached to you. If you find ticks attached to your body,
cover them with a substance, such as Vaseline, heavy oil, or tree sap, that will cut off their air supply.
Without air, the tick releases its hold, and you can remove it. Take care to remove the whole tick. Use
tweezers if you have them. Grasp the tick where the mouth parts are attached to the skin. Do not
squeeze the tick's body. Wash your hands after touching the tick. Clean the tick wound daily until healed.

Treatment
It is impossible to list the treatment of all the different types of bites and stings. Treat bites and stings as
follows:
•
•
•
•
•

If antibiotics are available for your use, become familiar with them before deployment and use
them.
Predeployment immunizations can prevent most of the common diseases carried by mosquitoes
and some carried by flies.
The common fly-borne diseases are usually treatable with penicillins or erythromycin.
Most tick-, flea-, louse-, and mite-borne diseases are treatable with tetracycline.
Most antibiotics come in 250 milligram (mg) or 500 mg tablets. If you cannot remember the exact
dose rate to treat a disease, 2 tablets, 4 times a day for 10 to 14 days will usually kill any bacteria.

Bee and Wasp Stings
If stung by a bee, immediately remove the stinger and venom sac, if attached, by scraping with a
fingernail or a knife blade. Do not squeeze or grasp the stinger or venom sac, as squeezing will force
more venom into the wound. Wash the sting site thoroughly with soap and water to lessen the chance of
a secondary infection.
If you know or suspect that you are allergic to insect stings, always carry an insect sting kit with you.
Relieve the itching and discomfort caused by insect bites by applying-Page 30 of 233

FM 21-76

•
•
•
•
•
•

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Cold compresses.
A cooling paste of mud and ashes.
Sap from dandelions.
Coconut meat.
Crushed cloves of garlic.
Onion.

Spider Bites and Scorpion Stings
The black widow spider is identified by a red hourglass on its abdomen. Only the female bites, and it has
a neurotoxic venom. The initial pain is not severe, but severe local pain rapidly develops. The pain
gradually spreads over the entire body and settles in the abdomen and legs. Abdominal cramps and
progressive nausea, vomiting, and a rash may occur. Weakness, tremors, sweating, and salivation may
occur. Anaphylactic reactions can occur. Symptoms begin to regress after several hours and are usually
gone in a few days. Threat for shock. Be ready to perform CPR. Clean and dress the bite area to reduce
the risk of infection. An antivenin is available.
The funnelweb spider is a large brown or gray spider found in Australia. The symptoms and the
treatment for its bite are as for the black widow spider.
The brown house spider or brown recluse spider is a small, light brown spider identified by a dark brown
violin on its back. There is no pain, or so little pain, that usually a victim is not aware of the bite. Within a
few hours a painful red area with a mottled cyanotic center appears. Necrosis does not occur in all bites,
but usually in 3 to 4 days, a star-shaped, firm area of deep purple discoloration appears at the bite site.
The area turns dark and mummified in a week or two. The margins separate and the scab falls off,
leaving an open ulcer. Secondary infection and regional swollen lymph glands usually become visible at
this stage. The outstanding characteristic of the brown recluse bite is an ulcer that does not heal but
persists for weeks or months. In addition to the ulcer, there is often a systemic reaction that is serious
and may lead to death. Reactions (fever, chills, joint pain, vomiting, and a generalized rash) occur chiefly
in children or debilitated persons.
Tarantulas are large, hairy spiders found mainly in the tropics. Most do not inject venom, but some South
American species do. They have large fangs. If bitten, pain and bleeding are certain, and infection is
likely. Treat a tarantula bite as for any open wound, and try to prevent infection. If symptoms of poisoning
appear, treat as for the bite of the black widow spider.
Scorpions are all poisonous to a greater or lesser degree. There are two different reactions, depending
on the species:
•
•

Severe local reaction only, with pain and swelling around the area of the sting. Possible prickly
sensation around the mouth and a thick-feeling tongue.
Severe systemic reaction, with little or no visible local reaction. Local pain may be present.
Systemic reaction includes respiratory difficulties, thick-feeling tongue, body spasms, drooling,
gastric distention, double vision, blindness, involuntary rapid movement of the eyeballs,
involuntary urination and defecation, and heart failure. Death is rare, occurring mainly in children
and adults with high blood pressure or illnesses.

Treat scorpion stings as you would a black widow bite.

Snakebites
The chance of a snakebite in a survival situation is rather small, if you are familiar with the various types
of snakes and their habitats. However, it could happen and you should know how to treat a snakebite.
Deaths from snakebites are rare. More than one-half of the snakebite victims have little or no poisoning,
and only about one-quarter develop serious systemic poisoning. However, the chance of a snakebite in a
survival situation can affect morale, and failure to take preventive measures or failure to treat a snakebite
properly can result in needless tragedy.
Page 31 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

The primary concern in the treatment of snakebite is to limit the amount of eventual tissue destruction
around the bite area.
A bite wound, regardless of the type of animal that inflicted it, can become infected from bacteria in the
animal's mouth. With nonpoisonous as well as poisonous snakebites, this local infection is responsible
for a large part of the residual damage that results.
Snake venoms not only contain poisons that attack the victim's central nervous system (neurotoxins) and
blood circulation (hemotoxins), but also digestive enzymes (cytotoxins) to aid in digesting their prey.
These poisons can cause a very large area of tissue death, leaving a large open wound. This condition
could lead to the need for eventual amputation if not treated.
Shock and panic in a person bitten by a snake can also affect the person's recovery. Excitement,
hysteria, and panic can speed up the circulation, causing the body to absorb the toxin quickly. Signs of
shock occur within the first 30 minutes after the bite.
Before you start treating a snakebite, determine whether the snake was poisonous or nonpoisonous.
Bites from a nonpoisonous snake will show rows of teeth. Bites from a poisonous snake may have rows
of teeth showing, but will have one or more distinctive puncture marks caused by fang penetration.
Symptoms of a poisonous bite may be spontaneous bleeding from the nose and anus, blood in the urine,
pain at the site of the bite, and swelling at the site of the bite within a few minutes or up to 2 hours later.
Breathing difficulty, paralysis, weakness, twitching, and numbness are also signs of neurotoxic venoms.
These signs usually appear 1.5 to 2 hours after the bite.
If you determine that a poisonous snake bit an individual, take the following steps:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Reassure the victim and keep him still.
Set up for shock and force fluids or give an intravenous (IV).
Remove watches, rings, bracelets, or other constricting items.
Clean the bite area.
Maintain an airway (especially if bitten near the face or neck) and be prepared to administer
mouth-to-mouth resuscitation or CPR.
Use a constricting band between the wound and the heart.
Immobilize the site.
Remove the poison as soon as possible by using a mechanical suction device or by squeezing.

Do not-•
•
•

Give the victim alcoholic beverages or tobacco products.
Give morphine or other central nervous system (CNS) depressors.
Make any deep cuts at the bite site. Cutting opens capillaries that in turn open a direct route into
the blood stream for venom and infection.
Note: If medical treatment is over one hour away, make an incision (no longer than 6
millimeters and no deeper than 3 millimeter) over each puncture, cutting just deep enough
to enlarge the fang opening, but only through the first or second layer of skin. Place a
suction cup over the bite so that you have a good vacuum seal. Suction the bite site 3 to 4
times. Use mouth suction only as a last resort and only if you do not have open sores
in your mouth. Spit the envenomed blood out and rinse your mouth with water. This
method will draw out 25 to 30 percent of the venom.

•
•

Put your hands on your face or rub your eyes, as venom may be on your hands. Venom may
cause blindness.
Break open the large blisters that form around the bite site.

After caring for the victim as described above, take the following actions to minimize local effects:

Page 32 of 233

FM 21-76

•
•
•
•

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

If infection appears, keep the wound open and clean.
Use heat after 24 to 48 hours to help prevent the spread of local infection. Heat also helps to
draw out an infection.
Keep the wound covered with a dry, sterile dressing.
Have the victim drink large amounts of fluids until the infection is gone.

WOUNDS
An interruption of the skin's integrity characterizes wounds. These wounds could be open wounds, skin
diseases, frostbite, trench foot, and burns.

Open Wounds
Open wounds are serious in a survival situation, not only because of tissue damage and blood loss, but
also because they may become infected. Bacteria on the object that made the wound, on the individual's
skin and clothing, or on other foreign material or dirt that touches the wound may cause infection.
By taking proper care of the wound you can reduce further contamination and promote healing. Clean
the wound as soon as possible after it occurs by-•
•
•
•

Removing or cutting clothing away from the wound.
Always looking for an exit wound if a sharp object, gun shot, or projectile caused a wound.
Thoroughly cleaning the skin around the wound.
Rinsing (not scrubbing) the wound with large amounts of water under pressure. You can use
fresh urine if water is not available.

The "open treatment" method is the safest way to manage wounds in survival situations. Do not try to
close any wound by suturing or similar procedures. Leave the wound open to allow the drainage of any
pus resulting from infection. As long as the wound can drain, it generally will not become life-threatening,
regardless of how unpleasant it looks or smells.
Cover the wound with a clean dressing. Place a bandage on the dressing to hold it in place. Change the
dressing daily to check for infection.
If a wound is gaping, you can bring the edges together with adhesive tape cut in the form of a "butterfly"
or "dumbbell" (Figure 4-7).

In a survival situation, some degree of wound infection is almost inevitable. Pain, swelling, and redness
around the wound, increased temperature, and pus in the wound or on the dressing indicate infection is
present.
To treat an infected wound-Page 33 of 233

FM 21-76

•

•
•
•

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Place a warm, moist compress directly on the infected wound. Change the compress when it
cools, keeping a warm compress on the wound for a total of 30 minutes. Apply the compresses
three or four times daily.
Drain the wound. Open and gently probe the infected wound with a sterile instrument.
Dress and bandage the wound.
Drink a lot of water.

Continue this treatment daily until all signs of infection have disappeared.
If you do not have antibiotics and the wound has become severely infected, does not heal, and ordinary
debridement is impossible, consider maggot therapy, despite its hazards:
•
•
•
•

•
•
•

Expose the wound to flies for one day and then cover it.
Check daily for maggots.
Once maggots develop, keep wound covered but check daily.
Remove all maggots when they have cleaned out all dead tissue and before they start on healthy
tissue. Increased pain and bright red blood in the wound indicate that the maggots have reached
healthy tissue.
Flush the wound repeatedly with sterile water or fresh urine to remove the maggots.
Check the wound every four hours for several days to ensure all maggots have been removed.
Bandage the wound and treat it as any other wound. It should heal normally.

Skin Diseases and Ailments
Although boils, fungal infections, and rashes rarely develop into a serious health problem, they cause
discomfort and you should treat them.

Boils
Apply warm compresses to bring the boil to a head. Then open the boil using a sterile knife, wire, needle,
or similar item. Thoroughly clean out the pus using soap and water. Cover the boil site, checking it
periodically to ensure no further infection develops.

Fungal Infections
Keep the skin clean and dry, and expose the infected area to as much sunlight as possible. Do not
scratch the affected area. During the Southeast Asian conflict, soldiers used antifungal powders, lye
soap, chlorine bleach, alcohol, vinegar, concentrated salt water, and iodine to treat fungal infections with
varying degrees of success. As with any "unorthodox" method of treatment, use it with caution.

Rashes
To treat a skin rash effectively, first determine what is causing it. This determination may be difficult even
in the best of situations. Observe the following rules to treat rashes:
•
•
•

If it is moist, keep it dry.
If it is dry, keep it moist.
Do not scratch it.

Use a compress of vinegar or tannic acid derived from tea or from boiling acorns or the bark of a
hardwood tree to dry weeping rashes. Keep dry rashes moist by rubbing a small amount of rendered
animal fat or grease on the affected area.

Page 34 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Remember, treat rashes as open wounds and clean and dress them daily. There are many substances
available to survivors in the wild or in captivity for use as antiseptics to treat wound:
•
•
•
•
•

Iodine tablets. Use 5 to 15 tablets in a liter of water to produce a good rinse for wounds during
healing.
Garlic. Rub it on a wound or boil it to extract the oils and use the water to rinse the affected area.
Salt water. Use 2 to 3 tablespoons per liter of water to kill bacteria.
Bee honey. Use it straight or dissolved in water.
Sphagnum moss. Found in boggy areas worldwide, it is a natural source of iodine. Use as a
dressing.

Again, use noncommercially prepared materials with caution.

Frostbite
This injury results from frozen tissues. Light frostbite involves only the skin that takes on a dull, whitish
pallor. Deep frostbite extends to a depth below the skin. The tissues become solid and immovable. Your
feet, hands, and exposed facial areas are particularly vulnerable to frostbite.
When with others, prevent frostbite by using the buddy system. Check your buddy's face often and make
sure that he checks yours. If you are alone, periodically cover your nose and lower part of your face with
your mittens.
Do not try to thaw the affected areas by placing them close to an open flame. Gently rub them in
lukewarm water. Dry the part and place it next to your skin to warm it at body temperature.

Trench Foot
This condition results from many hours or days of exposure to wet or damp conditions at a temperature
just above freezing. The nerves and muscles sustain the main damage, but gangrene can occur. In
extreme cases the flesh dies and it may become necessary to have the foot or leg amputated. The best
prevention is to keep your feet dry. Carry extra socks with you in a waterproof packet. Dry wet socks
against your body. Wash your feet daily and put on dry socks.

Burns
The following field treatment for burns relieves the pain somewhat, seems to help speed healing, and
offers some protection against infection:
•

•
•
•
•
•
•
•

First, stop the burning process. Put out the fire by removing clothing, dousing with water or sand,
or by rolling on the ground. Cool the burning skin with ice or water. For burns caused by white
phosphorous, pick out the white phosphorous with tweezers; do not douse with water.
Soak dressings or clean rags for 10 minutes in a boiling tannic acid solution (obtained from tea,
inner bark of hardwood trees, or acorns boiled in water).
Cool the dressings or clean rags and apply over burns.
Treat as an open wound.
Replace fluid loss.
Maintain airway.
Treat for shock.
Consider using morphine, unless the burns are near the face.

ENVIRONMENTAL INJURIES
Heatstroke, hypothermia, diarrhea, and intestinal parasites are environmental injuries you could face.

Page 35 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Heatstroke
The breakdown of the body's heat regulatory system (body temperature more than 40.5 degrees C [105
degrees F]) causes a heatstroke. Other heat injuries, such as cramps or dehydration, do not always
precede a heatstroke. Signs and symptoms of heatstroke are-•
•
•
•

Swollen, beet-red face.
Reddened whites of eyes.
Victim not sweating.
Unconsciousness or delirium, which can cause pallor, a bluish color to lips and nail beds
(cyanosis), and cool skin.
Note: By this time the victim is in severe shock. Cool the victim as rapidly as possible.
Cool him by dipping him in a cool stream. If one is not available, douse the victim with
urine, water, or at the very least, apply cool wet com-presses to all the joints, especially
the neck, armpits, and crotch. Be sure to wet the victim's head. Heat loss through the
scalp is great. Administer IVs and provide drinking fluids. You may fan the individual.

Expect, during cooling-•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Vomiting.
Diarrhea.
Struggling.
Shivering.
Shouting.
Prolonged unconsciousness.
Rebound heatstroke within 48 hours.
Cardiac arrest; be ready to perform CPR.
Note: Treat for dehydration with lightly salted water.

Hypothermia
Defined as the body's failure to maintain a temperature of 36 degrees C (97 degrees F). Exposure to
cool or cold temperature over a short or long time can cause hypothermia. Dehydration and lack of food
and rest predispose the survivor to hypothermia.
Unlike heatstroke, you must gradually warm the hypothermia victim. Get the victim into dry clothing.
Replace lost fluids, and warm him.

Diarrhea
A common, debilitating ailment caused by a change of water and food, drinking contaminated water,
eating spoiled food, becoming fatigued, and using dirty dishes. You can avoid most of these causes by
practicing preventive medicine. If you get diarrhea, however, and do not have antidiarrheal medicine, one
of the following treatments may be effective:
•
•

•

Limit your intake of fluids for 24 hours.
Drink one cup of a strong tea solution every 2 hours until the diarrhea slows or stops. The tannic
acid in the tea helps to control the diarrhea. Boil the inner bark of a hardwood tree for 2 hours or
more to release the tannic acid.
Make a solution of one handful of ground chalk, charcoal, or dried bones and treated water. If you
have some apple pomace or the rinds of citrus fruit, add an equal portion to the mixture to make it
more effective. Take 2 tablespoons of the solution every 2 hours until the diarrhea slows or stops.
Page 36 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Intestinal Parasites
You can usually avoid worm infestations and other intestinal parasites if you take preventive measures.
For example, never go barefoot. The most effective way to prevent intestinal parasites is to avoid
uncooked meat and raw vegetables contaminated by raw sewage or human waste used as a fertilizer.
However, should you become infested and lack proper medicine, you can use home remedies. Keep in
mind that these home remedies work on the principle of changing the environment of the gastrointestinal
tract. The following are home remedies you could use:
•
•

•
•

Salt water. Dissolve 4 tablespoons of salt in 1 liter of water and drink. Do not repeat this
treatment.
Tobacco. Eat 1 to 1.5 cigarettes. The nicotine in the cigarette will kill or stun the worms long
enough for your system to pass them. If the infestation is severe, repeat the treatment in 24 to 48
hours, but no sooner.
Kerosene. Drink 2 tablespoons of kerosene but no more. If necessary, you can repeat this
treatment in 24 to 48 hours. Be careful not to inhale the fumes. They may cause lung irritation.
Hot peppers. Peppers are effective only if they are a steady part of your diet. You can eat them
raw or put them in soups or rice and meat dishes. They create an environment that is prohibitive
to parasitic attachment.

HERBAL MEDICINES
Our modern wonder drugs, laboratories, and equipment have obscured more primitive types of medicine
involving determination, common sense, and a few simple treatments. In many areas of the world,
however, the people still depend on local "witch doctors" or healers to cure their ailments. Many of the
herbs (plants) and treatments they use are as effective as the most modern medications available. In
fact, many modern medications come from refined herbs.
WARNING
Use herbal medicines with extreme care, however, and only when you lack or have limited medical
supplies. Some herbal medicines are dangerous and may cause further damage or even death. See
Chapter 9, Survival Use of Plants, for some basic herbal medicine treatments.

Page 37 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

CHAPTER 5 - SHELTERS

A shelter can protect you from the sun, insects, wind, rain, snow, hot or cold
temperatures, and enemy observation. It can give you a feeling of well-being. It can help
you maintain your will to survive.
In some areas, your need for shelter may take precedence over your need for food and
possibly even your need for water. For example, prolonged exposure to cold can cause
excessive fatigue and weakness (exhaustion). An exhausted person may develop a
"passive" outlook, thereby losing the will to survive.
The most common error in making a shelter is to make it too large. A shelter must be
large enough to protect you. It must also be small enough to contain your body heat,
especially in cold climates.

SHELTER SITE SELECTION
When you are in a survival situation and realize that shelter is a high priority, start looking for shelter as
soon as possible. As you do so, remember what you will need at the site. Two requisites are-•
•

It must contain material to make the type of shelter you need.
It must be large enough and level enough for you to lie down comfortably.

When you consider these requisites, however, you cannot ignore your tactical situation or your safety.
You must also consider whether the site-•
•
•
•
•

Provides concealment from enemy observation.
Has camouflaged escape routes.
Is suitable for signaling, if necessary.
Provides protection against wild animals and rocks and dead trees that might fall.
Is free from insects, reptiles, and poisonous plants.

You must also remember the problems that could arise in your environment. For instance-•
•
•

Avoid flash flood areas in foothills.
Avoid avalanche or rockslide areas in mountainous terrain.
Avoid sites near bodies of water that are below the high water mark.

Page 38 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

In some areas, the season of the year has a strong bearing on the site you select. Ideal sites for a shelter
differ in winter and summer. During cold winter months you will want a site that will protect you from the
cold and wind, but will have a source of fuel and water. During summer months in the same area you will
want a source of water, but you will want the site to be almost insect free.
When considering shelter site selection, use the word BLISS as a guide.
B - Blend in with the surroundings.
L - Low silhouette.
I - Irregular shape.
S - Small.
S - Secluded location.

TYPES OF SHELTERS
When looking for a shelter site, keep in mind the type of shelter (protection) you need. However, you
must also consider-•
•
•
•

How much time and effort you need to build the shelter.
If the shelter will adequately protect you from the elements (sun, wind, rain, snow).
If you have the tools to build it. If not, can you make improvised tools?
If you have the type and amount of materials needed to build it.

To answer these questions, you need to know how to make various types of shelters and what materials
you need to make them.

Poncho Lean-To
It takes only a short time and minimal equipment to build this lean-to (Figure 5-1). You need a poncho, 2
to 3 meters of rope or parachute suspension line, three stakes about 30 centimeters long, and two trees
or two poles 2 to 3 meters apart. Before selecting the trees you will use or the location of your poles,
check the wind direction. Ensure that the back of your lean-to will be into the wind.

To make the lean-to-•
•

Tie off the hood of the poncho. Pull the drawstring tight, roll the hood longways, fold it into thirds,
and tie it off with the drawstring.
Cut the rope in half. On one long side of the poncho, tie half of the rope to the corner grommet.
Tie the other half to the other corner grommet.
Page 39 of 233

FM 21-76

•

•
•

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Attach a drip stick (about a 10-centimeter stick) to each rope about 2.5 centimeters from the
grommet. These drip sticks will keep rainwater from running down the ropes into the lean-to.
Tying strings (about 10 centimeters long) to each grommet along the poncho's top edge will allow
the water to run to and down the line without dripping into the shelter.
Tie the ropes about waist high on the trees (uprights). Use a round turn and two half hitches with
a quick-release knot.
Spread the poncho and anchor it to the ground, putting sharpened sticks through the grommets
and into the ground.

If you plan to use the lean-to for more than one night, or you expect rain, make a center support for the
lean-to. Make this support with a line. Attach one end of the line to the poncho hood and the other end to
an overhanging branch. Make sure there is no slack in the line.
Another method is to place a stick upright under the center of the lean-to. This method, however, will
restrict your space and movements in the shelter.
For additional protection from wind and rain, place some brush, your rucksack, or other equipment at the
sides of the lean-to.
To reduce heat loss to the ground, place some type of insulating material, such as leaves or pine
needles, inside your lean-to.
Note: When at rest, you lose as much as 80 percent of your body heat to the ground.
To increase your security from enemy observation, lower the lean-to's silhouette by making two changes.
First, secure the support lines to the trees at knee height (not at waist height) using two knee-high sticks
in the two center grommets (sides of lean-to). Second, angle the poncho to the ground, securing it with
sharpened sticks, as above.

Poncho Tent
This tent (Figure 5-2) provides a low silhouette. It also protects you from the elements on two sides. It
has, however, less usable space and observation area than a lean-to, decreasing your reaction time to
enemy detection. To make this tent, you need a poncho, two 1.5- to 2.5-meter ropes, six sharpened
sticks about 30 centimeters long, and two trees 2 to 3 meters apart.

To make the tent-•
•

Tie off the poncho hood in the same way as the poncho lean-to.
Tie a 1.5- to 2.5-meter rope to the center grommet on each side of the poncho.
Page 40 of 233

FM 21-76

•
•
•

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Tie the other ends of these ropes at about knee height to two trees 2 to 3 meters apart and
stretch the poncho tight.
Draw one side of the poncho tight and secure it to the ground pushing sharpened sticks through
the grommets.
Follow the same procedure on the other side.

If you need a center support, use the same methods as for the poncho lean-to. Another center support is
an A-frame set outside but over the center of the tent (Figure 5-3). Use two 90- to 120-centimeter-long
sticks, one with a forked end, to form the A-frame. Tie the hood's drawstring to the A-frame to support
the center of the tent.

Three-Pole Parachute Tepee
If you have a parachute and three poles and the tactical situation allows, make a parachute tepee. It is
easy and takes very little time to make this tepee. It provides protection from the elements and can act as
a signaling device by enhancing a small amount of light from a fire or candle. It is large enough to hold
several people and their equipment and to allow sleeping, cooking, and storing firewood.
You can make this tepee using parts of or a whole personnel main or reserve parachute canopy. If using
a standard personnel parachute, you need three poles 3.5 to 4.5 meters long and about 5 centimeters in
diameter.
To make this tepee (Figure 5-4)-•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Lay the poles on the ground and lash them together at one end.
Stand the framework up and spread the poles to form a tripod.
For more support, place additional poles against the tripod. Five or six additional poles work best,
but do not lash them to the tripod.
Determine the wind direction and locate the entrance 90 degrees or more from the mean wind
direction.
Lay out the parachute on the "backside" of the tripod and locate the bridle loop (nylon web loop)
at the top (apex) of the canopy.
Place the bridle loop over the top of a free-standing pole. Then place the pole back up against the
tripod so that the canopy's apex is at the same height as the lashing on the three poles.
Wrap the canopy around one side of the tripod. The canopy should be of double thickness, as
you are wrapping an entire parachute. You need only wrap half of the tripod, as the remainder of
the canopy will encircle the tripod in the opposite direction.
Page 41 of 233

FM 21-76

•
•
•

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Construct the entrance by wrapping the folded edges of the canopy around two free-standing
poles. You can then place the poles side by side to close the tepee's entrance.
Place all extra canopy underneath the tepee poles and inside to create a floor for the shelter.
Leave a 30- to 50-centimeter opening at the top for ventilation if you intend to have a fire inside
the tepee.

One-Pole Parachute Tepee
You need a 14-gore section (normally) of canopy, stakes, a stout center pole, and inner core and needle
to construct this tepee. You cut the suspension lines except for 40- to 45-centimeter lengths at the
canopy's lower lateral band.
To make this tepee (Figure 5-5)-Page 42 of 233

FM 21-76

•
•
•
•
•
•

•
•

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Select a shelter site and scribe a circle about 4 meters in diameter on the ground.
Stake the parachute material to the ground using the lines remaining at the lower lateral band.
After deciding where to place the shelter door, emplace a stake and tie the first line (from the
lower lateral band) securely to it.
Stretch the parachute material taut to the next line, emplace a stake on the scribed line, and tie
the line to it.
Continue the staking process until you have tied all the lines.
Loosely attach the top of the parachute material to the center pole with a suspension line you
previously cut and, through trial and error, determine the point at which the parachute material will
be pulled tight once the center pole is upright.
Then securely attach the material to the pole.
Using a suspension line (or inner core), sew the end gores together leaving 1 or 1.2 meters for a
door.

No-Pole Parachute Tepee
You use the same materials, except for the center pole, as for the one-pole parachute tepee.
To make this tepee (Figure 5-6)-•
•
•
•
•
•

Tie a line to the top of parachute material with a previously cut suspension line.
Throw the line over a tree limb, and tie it to the tree trunk.
Starting at the opposite side from the door, emplace a stake on the scribed 3.5- to 4.3-meter
circle.
Tie the first line on the lower lateral band.
Continue emplacing the stakes and tying the lines to them.
After staking down the material, unfasten the line tied to the tree trunk, tighten the tepee material
by pulling on this line, and tie it securely to the tree trunk.

Page 43 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

One-Man Shelter
A one-man shelter you can easily make using a parachute requires a tree and three poles. One pole
should be about 4.5 meters long and the other two about 3 meters long.
To make this shelter (Figure 5-7)-•
•
•
•
•
•

Secure the 4.5-meter pole to the tree at about waist height.
Lay the two 3-meter poles on the ground on either side of and in the same direction as the 4.5meter pole.
Lay the folded canopy over the 4.5 meter pole so that about the same amount of material hangs
on both sides.
Tuck the excess material under the 3-meter poles, and spread it on the ground inside to serve as
a floor.
Stake down or put a spreader between the two 3-meter poles at the shelter's entrance so they will
not slide inward.
Use any excess material to cover the entrance.

The parachute cloth makes this shelter wind resistant, and the shelter is small enough that it is easily
warmed. A candle, used carefully, can keep the inside temperature comfortable. This shelter is
unsatisfactory, however, when snow is falling as even a light snowfall will cave it in.
Page 44 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Parachute Hammock
You can make a hammock using 6 to 8 gores of parachute canopy and two trees about 4.5 meters apart
(Figure 5-8).

Field-Expedient Lean-To
If you are in a wooded area and have enough natural materials, you can make a field-expedient lean-to
(Figure 5-9) without the aid of tools or with only a knife. It takes longer to make this type of shelter than it
does to make other types, but it will protect you from the elements.

Page 45 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

You will need two trees (or upright poles) about 2 meters apart; one pole about 2 meters long and 2.5
centimeters in diameter; five to eight poles about 3 meters long and 2.5 centimeters in diameter for
beams; cord or vines for securing the horizontal support to the trees; and other poles, saplings, or vines
to crisscross the beams.
To make this lean-to-•
•
•
•
•

Tie the 2-meter pole to the two trees at waist to chest height. This is the horizontal support. If a
standing tree is not available, construct a biped using Y-shaped sticks or two tripods.
Place one end of the beams (3-meter poles) on one side of the horizontal support. As with all
lean-to type shelters, be sure to place the lean-to's backside into the wind.
Crisscross saplings or vines on the beams.
Cover the framework with brush, leaves, pine needles, or grass, starting at the bottom and
working your way up like shingling.
Place straw, leaves, pine needles, or grass inside the shelter for bedding.

In cold weather, add to your lean-to's comfort by building a fire reflector wall (Figure 5-9). Drive four 1.5meter-long stakes into the ground to support the wall. Stack green logs on top of one another between
the support stakes. Form two rows of stacked logs to create an inner space within the wall that you can
fill with dirt. This action not only strengthens the wall but makes it more heat reflective. Bind the top of the
support stakes so that the green logs and dirt will stay in place.
With just a little more effort you can have a drying rack. Cut a few 2-centimeter-diameter poles (length
depends on the distance between the lean-to's horizontal support and the top of the fire reflector wall).
Lay one end of the poles on the lean-to support and the other end on top of the reflector wall. Place and
tie into place smaller sticks across these poles. You now have a place to dry clothes, meat, or fish.

Swamp Bed
In a marsh or swamp, or any area with standing water or continually wet ground, the swamp bed (Figure
5-10) keeps you out of the water. When selecting such a site, consider the weather, wind, tides, and
available materials.

Page 46 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

To make a swamp bed-•
•
•
•
•
•

Look for four trees clustered in a rectangle, or cut four poles (bamboo is ideal) and drive them
firmly into the ground so they form a rectangle. They should be far enough apart and strong
enough to support your height and weight, to include equipment.
Cut two poles that span the width of the rectangle. They, too, must be strong enough to support
your weight.
Secure these two poles to the trees (or poles). Be sure they are high enough above the ground or
water to allow for tides and high water.
Cut additional poles that span the rectangle's length. Lay them across the two side poles, and
secure them.
Cover the top of the bed frame with broad leaves or grass to form a soft sleeping surface.
Build a fire pad by laying clay, silt, or mud on one comer of the swamp bed and allow it to dry.

Another shelter designed to get you above and out of the water or wet ground uses the same rectangular
configuration as the swamp bed. You very simply lay sticks and branches lengthwise on the inside of the
trees (or poles) until there is enough material to raise the sleeping surface above the water level.

Natural Shelters
Do not overlook natural formations that provide shelter. Examples are caves, rocky crevices, clumps of
bushes, small depressions, large rocks on leeward sides of hills, large trees with low-hanging limbs, and
fallen trees with thick branches. However, when selecting a natural formation-•

•
•

Stay away from low ground such as ravines, narrow valleys, or creek beds. Low areas collect the
heavy cold air at night and are therefore colder than the surrounding high ground. Thick, brushy,
low ground also harbors more insects.
Check for poisonous snakes, ticks, mites, scorpions, and stinging ants.
Look for loose rocks, dead limbs, coconuts, or other natural growth than could fall on your shelter.

Debris Hut
For warmth and ease of construction, this shelter is one of the best. When shelter is essential to survival,
build this shelter.
To make a debris hut (Figure 5-11)-Page 47 of 233

FM 21-76

•
•
•

•

•
•
•
•

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Build it by making a tripod with two short stakes and a long ridgepole or by placing one end of a
long ridgepole on top of a sturdy base.
Secure the ridgepole (pole running the length of the shelter) using the tripod method or by
anchoring it to a tree at about waist height.
Prop large sticks along both sides of the ridgepole to create a wedge-shaped ribbing effect.
Ensure the ribbing is wide enough to accommodate your body and steep enough to shed
moisture.
Place finer sticks and brush crosswise on the ribbing. These form a latticework that will keep the
insulating material (grass, pine needles, leaves) from falling through the ribbing into the sleeping
area.
Add light, dry, if possible, soft debris over the ribbing until the insulating material is at least 1
meter thick--the thicker the better.
Place a 30-centimeter layer of insulating material inside the shelter.
At the entrance, pile insulating material that you can drag to you once inside the shelter to close
the entrance or build a door.
As a final step in constructing this shelter, add shingling material or branches on top of the debris
layer to prevent the insulating material from blowing away in a storm.

Tree-Pit Snow Shelter
If you are in a cold, snow-covered area where evergreen trees grow and you have a digging tool, you
can make a tree-pit shelter (Figure 5-12).

Page 48 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

To make this shelter-•
•
•
•

Find a tree with bushy branches that provides overhead cover.
Dig out the snow around the tree trunk until you reach the depth and diameter you desire, or until
you reach the ground.
Pack the snow around the top and the inside of the hole to provide support.
Find and cut other evergreen boughs. Place them over the top of the pit to give you additional
overhead cover. Place evergreen boughs in the bottom of the pit for insulation.

See Chapter 15 for other arctic or cold weather shelters.

Beach Shade Shelter
This shelter protects you from the sun, wind, rain, and heat. It is easy to make using natural materials.
To make this shelter (Figure 5-13)-•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Find and collect driftwood or other natural material to use as support beams and as a digging
tool.
Select a site that is above the high water mark.
Scrape or dig out a trench running north to south so that it receives the least amount of sunlight.
Make the trench long and wide enough for you to lie down comfortably.
Mound soil on three sides of the trench. The higher the mound, the more space inside the shelter.
Lay support beams (driftwood or other natural material) that span the trench on top of the mound
to form the framework for a roof.
Enlarge the shelter's entrance by digging out more sand in front of it.
Use natural materials such as grass or leaves to form a bed inside the shelter.

Page 49 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Desert Shelters
In an arid environment, consider the time, effort, and material needed to make a shelter. If you have
material such as a poncho, canvas, or a parachute, use it along with such terrain features as rock
outcropping, mounds of sand, or a depression between dunes or rocks to make your shelter.
Using rock outcroppings-•
•

Anchor one end of your poncho (canvas, parachute, or other material) on the edge of the outcrop
using rocks or other weights.
Extend and anchor the other end of the poncho so it provides the best possible shade.

In a sandy area-•
•
•

Build a mound of sand or use the side of a sand dune for one side of the shelter.
Anchor one end of the material on top of the mound using sand or other weights.
Extend and anchor the other end of the material so it provides the best possible shade.
Note: If you have enough material, fold it in half and form a 30-centimeter to 45-centimeter
airspace between the two halves. This airspace will reduce the temperature under the
shelter.

A belowground shelter (Figure 5-14) can reduce the midday heat as much as 16 to 22 degrees C (30 to
40 degrees F). Building it, however, requires more time and effort than for other shelters. Since your
physical effort will make you sweat more and increase dehydration, construct it before the heat of the
day.

Page 50 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

To make this shelter-•
•
•
•
•

Find a low spot or depression between dunes or rocks. If necessary, dig a trench 45 to 60
centimeters deep and long and wide enough for you to lie in comfortably.
Pile the sand you take from the trench to form a mound around three sides.
On the open end of the trench, dig out more sand so you can get in and out of your shelter easily.
Cover the trench with your material.
Secure the material in place using sand, rocks, or other weights.

If you have extra material, you can further decrease the midday temperature in the trench by securing
the material 30 to 45 centimeters above the other cover. This layering of the material will reduce the
inside temperature 11 to 22 degrees C (20 to 40 degrees F).
Another type of belowground shade shelter is of similar construction, except all sides are open to air
currents and circulation. For maximum protection, you need a minimum of two layers of parachute
material (Figure 5-15). White is the best color to reflect heat; the innermost layer should be of darker
material.

Page 51 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Page 52 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

CHAPTER 6 - WATER PROCUREMENT

Water is one of your most urgent needs in a survival situation. You can' t live long without
it, especially in hot areas where you lose water rapidly through perspiration. Even in cold
areas, you need a minimum of 2 liters of water each day to maintain efficiency.
More than three-fourths of your body is composed of fluids. Your body loses fluid as a
result of heat, cold, stress, and exertion. To function effectively, you must replace the fluid
your body loses. So, one of your first goals is to obtain an adequate supply of water.

WATER SOURCES
Almost any environment has water present to some degree. Figure 6-1 lists possible sources of water in
various environments. It also provides information on how to make the water potable.

Page 53 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Page 54 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Note: If you do not have a canteen, a cup, a can, or other type of container, improvise one
from plastic or water-resistant cloth. Shape the plastic or cloth into a bowl by pleating it.
Use pins or other suitable items--even your hands--to hold the pleats.
If you do not have a reliable source to replenish your water supply, stay alert for ways in which your
environment can help you.
CAUTION
Do not substitute the fluids listed in Figure 6-2 for water.

Page 55 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Heavy dew can provide water. Tie rags or tufts of fine grass around your ankles and walk through dewcovered grass before sunrise. As the rags or grass tufts absorb the dew, wring the water into a container.
Repeat the process until you have a supply of water or until the dew is gone. Australian natives
sometimes mop up as much as a liter an hour this way.
Bees or ants going into a hole in a tree may point to a water-filled hole. Siphon the water with plastic
tubing or scoop it up with an improvised dipper. You can also stuff cloth in the hole to absorb the water
and then wring it from the cloth.
Water sometimes gathers in tree crotches or rock crevices. Use the above procedures to get the water.
In arid areas, bird droppings around a crack in the rocks may indicate water in or near the crack.
Green bamboo thickets are an excellent source of fresh water. Water from green bamboo is clear and
odorless. To get the water, bend a green bamboo stalk, tie it down, and cut off the top (Figure 6-3). The
water will drip freely during the night. Old, cracked bamboo may contain water.

CAUTION
Purify the water before drinking it.
Wherever you find banana or plantain trees, you can get water. Cut down the tree, leaving about a 30centimeter stump, and scoop out the center of the stump so that the hollow is bowl-shaped. Water from
the roots will immediately start to fill the hollow. The first three fillings of water will be bitter, but
succeeding fillings will be palatable. The stump (Figure 6-4) will supply water for up to four days. Be sure
to cover it to keep out insects.

Page 56 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Some tropical vines can give you water. Cut a notch in the vine as high as you can reach, then cut the
vine off close to the ground. Catch the dropping liquid in a container or in your mouth (Figure 6-5).

Page 57 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

CAUTION
Do not drink the liquid if it is sticky, milky, or bitter tasting.
The milk from green (unripe) coconuts is a good thirst quencher. However, the milk from mature
coconuts contains an oil that acts as a laxative. Drink in moderation only.
In the American tropics you may find large trees whose branches support air plants. These air plants
may hold a considerable amount of rainwater in their overlapping, thickly growing leaves. Strain the
water through a cloth to remove insects and debris.
You can get water from plants with moist pulpy centers. Cut off a section of the plant and squeeze or
smash the pulp so that the moisture runs out. Catch the liquid in a container.
Plant roots may provide water. Dig or pry the roots out of the ground, cut them into short pieces, and
smash the pulp so that the moisture runs out. Catch the liquid in a container.
Fleshy leaves, stems, or stalks, such as bamboo, contain water. Cut or notch the stalks at the base of a
joint to drain out the liquid.
The following trees can also provide water:
•
•
•
•

Palms. Palms, such as the buri, coconut, sugar, rattan, and nips, contain liquid. Bruise a lower
frond and pull it down so the tree will "bleed" at the injury.
Traveler's tree. Found in Madagascar, this tree has a cuplike sheath at the base of its leaves in
which water collects.
Umbrella tree. The leaf bases and roots of this tree of western tropical Africa can provide water.
Baobab tree. This tree of the sandy plains of northern Australia and Africa collects water in its
bottlelike trunk during the wet season. Frequently, you can find clear, fresh water in these trees
after weeks of dry weather.

CAUTION
Do not keep the sap from plants longer than 24 hours. It begins fermenting, becoming dangerous as a
water source.

STILL CONSTRUCTION
You can use stills in various areas of the world. They draw moisture from the ground and from plant
material. You need certain materials to build a still, and you need time to let it collect the water. It takes
about 24 hours to get 0.5 to 1 liter of water.

Aboveground Still
To make the aboveground still, you need a sunny slope on which to place the still, a clear plastic bag,
green leafy vegetation, and a small rock (Figure 6-6).

Page 58 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

To make the still-•
•

Fill the bag with air by turning the opening into the breeze or by "scooping" air into the bag.
Fill the plastic bag half to three-fourths full of green leafy vegetation. Be sure to remove all hard
sticks or sharp spines that might puncture the bag.

CAUTION
Do not use poisonous vegetation. It will provide poisonous liquid.
•
•

•
•

Place a small rock or similar item in the bag.
Close the bag and tie the mouth securely as close to the end of the bag as possible to keep the
maximum amount of air space. If you have a piece of tubing, a small straw, or a hollow reed,
insert one end in the mouth of the bag before you tie it securely. Then tie off or plug the tubing so
that air will not escape. This tubing will allow you to drain out condensed water without untying
the bag.
Place the bag, mouth downhill, on a slope in full sunlight. Position the mouth of the bag slightly
higher than the low point in the bag.
Settle the bag in place so that the rock works itself into the low point in the bag.

To get the condensed water from the still, loosen the tie around the bag's mouth and tip the bag so that
the water collected around the rock will drain out. Then retie the mouth securely and reposition the still to
allow further condensation.
Change the vegetation in the bag after extracting most of the water from it. This will ensure maximum
output of water.

Belowground Still
To make a belowground still, you need a digging tool, a container, a clear plastic sheet, a drinking tube,
and a rock (Figure 6-7).
Page 59 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Select a site where you believe the soil will contain moisture (such as a dry stream bed or a low spot
where rainwater has collected). The soil at this site should be easy to dig, and sunlight must hit the site
most of the day.
To construct the still-•
•

•
•
•
•
•
•

•
•

Dig a bowl-shaped hole about 1 meter across and 60 centimeters deep.
Dig a sump in the center of the hole. The sump's depth and perimeter will depend on the size of
the container that you have to place in it. The bottom of the sump should allow the container to
stand upright.
Anchor the tubing to the container's bottom by forming a loose overhand knot in the tubing.
Place the container upright in the sump.
Extend the unanchored end of the tubing up, over, and beyond the lip of the hole.
Place the plastic sheet over the hole, covering its edges with soil to hold it in place.
Place a rock in the center of the plastic sheet.
Lower the plastic sheet into the hole until it is about 40 centimeters below ground level. It now
forms an inverted cone with the rock at its apex. Make sure that the cone's apex is directly over
your container. Also make sure the plastic cone does not touch the sides of the hole because the
earth will absorb the condensed water.
Put more soil on the edges of the plastic to hold it securely in place and to prevent the loss of
moisture.
Plug the tube when not in use so that the moisture will not evaporate.

You can drink water without disturbing the still by using the tube as a straw.
You may want to use plants in the hole as a moisture source. If so, dig out additional soil from the sides
of the hole to form a slope on which to place the plants. Then proceed as above.
If polluted water is your only moisture source, dig a small trough outside the hole about 25 centimeters
from the still's lip (Figure 6-8). Dig the trough about 25 centimeters deep and 8 centimeters wide. Pour
the polluted water in the trough. Be sure you do not spill any polluted water around the rim of the hole
where the plastic sheet touches the soil. The trough holds the polluted water and the soil filters it as the
still draws it. The water then condenses on the plastic and drains into the container. This process works
extremely well when your only water source is salt water.

Page 60 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

You will need at least three stills to meet your individual daily water intake needs.

WATER PURIFICATION
Rainwater collected in clean containers or in plants is usually safe for drinking. However, purify water
from lakes, ponds, swamps, springs, or streams, especially the water near human settlements or in the
tropics.
When possible, purify all water you got from vegetation or from the ground by using iodine or chlorine, or
by boiling.
Purify water by-•
•

•

Using water purification tablets. (Follow the directions provided.)
Placing 5 drops of 2 percent tincture of iodine in a canteen full of clear water. If the canteen is full
of cloudy or cold water, use 10 drops. (Let the canteen of water stand for 30 minutes before
drinking.)
Boiling water for 1 minute at sea level, adding 1 minute for each additional 300 meters above sea
level, or boil for 10 minutes no matter where you are.

By drinking nonpotable water you may contract diseases or swallow organisms that can harm you.
Examples of such diseases or organisms are-•
•
•
•

Dysentery. Severe, prolonged diarrhea with bloody stools, fever, and weakness.
Cholera and typhoid. You may be susceptible to these diseases regardless of inoculations.
Flukes. Stagnant, polluted water--especially in tropical areas--often contains blood flukes. If you
swallow flukes, they will bore into the bloodstream, live as parasites, and cause disease.
Leeches. If you swallow a leech, it can hook onto the throat passage or inside the nose. It will
suck blood, create a wound, and move to another area. Each bleeding wound may become
infected.

WATER FILTRATION DEVICES
If the water you find is also muddy, stagnant, and foul smelling, you can clear the water-•
•

By placing it in a container and letting it stand for 12 hours.
By pouring it through a filtering system.
Page 61 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Note: These procedures only clear the water and make it more palatable. You will have to
purify it.
To make a filtering system, place several centimeters or layers of filtering material such as sand, crushed
rock, charcoal, or cloth in bamboo, a hollow log, or an article of clothing (Figure 6-9).

Remove the odor from water by adding charcoal from your fire. Let the water stand for 45 minutes before
drinking it.

Page 62 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

CHAPTER 7 - FIRECRAFT

In many survival situations, the ability to start a fire can make the difference between living
and dying. Fire can fulfill many needs. It can provide warmth and comfort. It not only
cooks and preserves food, it also provides warmth in the form of heated food that saves
calories our body normally uses to produce body heat. You can use fire to purify water,
sterilize bandages, signal for rescue, and provide protection from animals. It can be a
psychological boost by providing peace of mind and companionship. You can also use fire
to produce tools and weapons.
Fire can cause problems, as well. The enemy can detect the smoke and light it produces.
It can cause forest fires or destroy essential equipment. Fire can also cause burns carbon
monoxide poisoning when used in shelters.
Remember weigh your need for fire against your need to avoid enemy detection.

BASIC FIRE PRINCIPLES
To build a fire, it helps to understand the basic principles of a fire. Fuel (in a nongaseous state) does not
burn directly. When you apply heat to a fuel, it produces a gas. This gas, combined with oxygen in the
air, burns.
Understanding the concept of the fire triangle is very important in correctly constructing and maintaining
a fire. The three sides of the triangle represent air, heat, and fuel. If you remove any of these, the fire will
go out. The correct ratio of these components is very important for a fire to burn at its greatest capability.
The only way to learn this ratio is to practice.

SITE SELECTION AND PREPARATION
You will have to decide what site and arrangement to use. Before building a fire consider-•
•
•
•
•

The area (terrain and climate) in which you are operating.
The materials and tools available.
Time: how much time you have?
Need: why you need a fire?
Security: how close is the enemy?

Look for a dry spot that-•
•
•

Is protected from the wind.
Is suitably placed in relation to your shelter (if any).
Will concentrate the heat in the direction you desire.
Page 63 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Has a supply of wood or other fuel available. (See Figure 7-4 for types of material you can use.)

If you are in a wooded or brush-covered area, clear the brush and scrape the surface soil from the spot
you have selected. Clear a circle at least 1 meter in diameter so there is little chance of the fire
spreading.
If time allows, construct a fire wall using logs or rocks. This wall will help to reflector direct the heat where
you want it (Figure 7-1). It will also reduce flying sparks and cut down on the amount of wind blowing into
the fire. However, you will need enough wind to keep the fire burning.
CAUTION
Do not use wet or porous rocks as they may explode when heated.

Page 64 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

In some situations, you may find that an underground fireplace will best meet your needs. It conceals the
fire and serves well for cooking food. To make an underground fireplace or Dakota fire hole (Figure 7-2)-•
•
•

Dig a hole in the ground.
On the upwind side of this hole, poke or dig a large connecting hole for ventilation.
Build your fire in the hole as illustrated.

If you are in a snow-covered area, use green logs to make a dry base for your fire (Figure 7-3). Trees
with wrist-sized trunks are easily broken in extreme cold. Cut or break several green logs and lay them
side by side on top of the snow. Add one or two more layers. Lay the top layer of logs opposite those
below it.
Page 65 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

FIRE MATERIAL SELECTION
You need three types of materials (Figure 7-4) to build a fire--tinder, kindling, and fuel.
Tinder is dry material that ignites with little heat--a spark starts a fire. The tinder must be absolutely dry to
be sure just a spark will ignite it. If you only have a device that generates sparks, charred cloth will be
almost essential. It holds a spark for long periods, allowing you to put tinder on the hot area to generate a
small flame. You can make charred cloth by heating cotton cloth until it turns black, but does not burn.
Once it is black, you must keep it in an airtight container to keep it dry. Prepare this cloth well in advance
of any survival situation. Add it to your individual survival kit.
Kindling is readily combustible material that you add to the burning tinder. Again, this material should be
absolutely dry to ensure rapid burning. Kindling increases the fire's temperature so that it will ignite less
combustible material.
Fuel is less combustible material that burns slowly and steadily once ignited.

HOW TO BUILD A FIRE
There are several methods for laying a fire, each of which has advantages. The situation you find
yourself in will determine which fire to use.

Tepee
To make this fire (Figure 7-5), arrange the tinder and a few sticks of kindling in the shape of a tepee or
cone. Light the center. As the tepee burns, the outside logs will fall inward, feeding the fire. This type of
fire burns well even with wet wood.

Page 66 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Lean-To
To lay this fire (Figure 7-5), push a green stick into the ground at a 30-degree angle. Point the end of the
stick in the direction of the wind. Place some tinder deep under this lean-to stick. Lean pieces of kindling
against the lean-to stick. Light the tinder. As the kindling catches fire from the tinder, add more kindling.

Cross-Ditch
To use this method (Figure 7-5), scratch a cross about 30 centimeters in size in the ground. Dig the
cross 7.5 centimeters deep. Put a large wad of tinder in the middle of the cross. Build a kindling pyramid
above the tinder. The shallow ditch allows air to sweep under the tinder to provide a draft.

Pyramid
To lay this fire (Figure 7-5), place two small logs or branches parallel on the ground. Place a solid layer
of small logs across the parallel logs. Add three or four more layers of logs or branches, each layer
smaller than and at a right angle to the layer below it. Make a starter fire on top of the pyramid. As the
starter fire burns, it will ignite the logs below it. This gives you a fire that burns downward, requiring no
attention during the night.
There are several other ways to lay a fire that are quite effective. Your situation and the material
available in the area may make another method more suitable.

HOW TO LIGHT A FIRE
Always light your fire from the upwind side. Make sure to lay your tinder, kindling, and fuel so that your
fire will burn as long as you need it. Igniters provide the initial heat required to start the tinder burning.
They fall into two categories: modern methods and primitive methods.

Modern Methods
Page 67 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Modem igniters use modem devices--items we normally think of to start a fire.

Matches
Make sure these matches are waterproof. Also, store them in a waterproof container along with a
dependable striker pad.

Convex Lens
Use this method (Figure 7-6) only on bright, sunny days. The lens can come from binoculars, camera,
telescopic sights, or magnifying glasses. Angle the lens to concentrate the sun's rays on the tinder. Hold
the lens over the same spot until the tinder begins to smolder. Gently blow or fan the tinder into flame,
and apply it to the fire lay.

Metal Match
Place a flat, dry leaf under your tinder with a portion exposed. Place the tip of the metal match on the dry
leaf, holding the metal match in one hand and a knife in the other. Scrape your knife against the metal
match to produce sparks. The sparks will hit the tinder. When the tinder starts to smolder, proceed as
above.

Battery
Use a battery to generate a spark. Use of this method depends on the type of battery available. Attach a
wire to each terminal. Touch the ends of the bare wires together next to the tinder so the sparks will
ignite it.

Gunpowder
Often, you will have ammunition with your equipment. If so, carefully extract the bullet from the shell
casing, and use the gunpowder as tinder. A spark will ignite the powder. Be extremely careful when
extracting the bullet from the case.
Page 68 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Primitive Methods
Primitive igniters are those attributed to our early ancestors.

Flint and Steel
The direct spark method is the easiest of the primitive methods to use. The flint and steel method is the
most reliable of the direct spark methods. Strike a flint or other hard, sharp-edged rock edge with a piece
of carbon steel (stainless steel will not produce a good spark). This method requires a loose-jointed wrist
and practice. When a spark has caught in the tinder, blow on it. The spark will spread and burst into
flames.

Fire-Plow
The fire-plow (Figure 7-7) is a friction method of ignition. You rub a hardwood shaft against a softer wood
base. To use this method, cut a straight groove in the base and plow the blunt tip of the shaft up and
down the groove. The plowing action of the shaft pushes out small particles of wood fibers. Then, as you
apply more pressure on each stroke, the friction ignites the wood particles.

Bow and Drill
The technique of starting a fire with a bow and drill (Figure 7-8) is simple, but you must exert much effort
and be persistent to produce a fire. You need the following items to use this method:
•
•
•

Socket. The socket is an easily grasped stone or piece of hardwood or bone with a slight
depression in one side. Use it to hold the drill in place and to apply downward pressure.
Drill. The drill should be a straight, seasoned hardwood stick about 2 centimeters in diameter and
25 centimeters long. The top end is round and the low end blunt (to produce more friction).
Fire board. Its size is up to you. A seasoned softwood board about 2.5 centimeters thick and 10
centimeters wide is preferable. Cut a depression about 2 centimeters from the edge on one side
of the board. On the underside, make a V-shaped cut from the edge of the board to the
depression.
Page 69 of 233

FM 21-76

•

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Bow. The bow is a resilient, green stick about 2.5 centimeters in diameter and a string. The type
of wood is not important. The bowstring can be any type of cordage. You tie the bowstring from
one end of the bow to the other, without any slack.

To use the bow and drill, first prepare the fire lay. Then place a bundle of tinder under the V-shaped cut
in the fire board. Place one foot on the fire board. Loop the bowstring over the drill and place the drill in
the precut depression on the fire board. Place the socket, held in one hand, on the top of the drill to hold
it in position. Press down on the drill and saw the bow back and forth to twirl the drill (Figure 7-8). Once
you have established a smooth motion, apply more downward pressure and work the bow faster. This
action will grind hot black powder into the tinder, causing a spark to catch. Blow on the tinder until it
ignites.
Note: Primitive fire-building methods are exhaustive and require practice to ensure
success.
HELPFUL HINTS
Use nonaromatic seasoned hardwood for fuel, if possible.
Collect kindling and tinder along the trail.
Add insect repellent to the tinder.
Keep the firewood dry.
Dry damp firewood near the fire.
Bank the fire to keep the coals alive overnight.
Carry lighted punk, when possible.
Be sure the fire is out before leaving camp.
Page 70 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Do not select wood lying on the ground. It may appear to be dry but generally doesn't provide enough
friction.

Page 71 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

CHAPTER 8 - FOOD PROCUREMENT

After water, man's most urgent requirement is food. In contemplating virtually any
hypothetical survival situation, the mind immediately turns to thoughts of food. Unless the
situation occurs in an arid environment, even water, which is more important to
maintaining body functions, will almost always follow food in our initial thoughts. The
survivor must remember that the three essentials of survival--water, food, and shelter--are
prioritized according to the estimate of the actual situation. This estimate must not only be
timely but accurate as well. Some situations may well dictate that shelter precede both
food and water.

ANIMALS FOR FOOD
Unless you have the chance to take large game, concentrate your efforts on the smaller animals, due to
their abundance. The smaller animal species are also easier to prepare. You must not know all the
animal species that are suitable as food. Relatively few are poisonous, and they make a smaller list to
remember. What is important is to learn the habits and behavioral patterns of classes of animals. For
example, animals that are excellent choices for trapping, those that inhabit a particular range and occupy
a den or nest, those that have somewhat fixed feeding areas, and those that have trails leading from one
area to another. Larger, herding animals, such as elk or caribou, roam vast areas and are somewhat
more difficult to trap. Also, you must understand the food choices of a particular species.
You can, with relatively few exceptions, eat anything that crawls, swims, walks, or flies. The first obstacle
is overcoming your natural aversion to a particular food source. Historically, people in starvation
situations have resorted to eating everything imaginable for nourishment. A person who ignores an
otherwise healthy food source due to a personal bias, or because he feels it is unappetizing, is risking his
own survival. Although it may prove difficult at first, a survivor must eat what is available to maintain his
health.

Insects
The most abundant life-form on earth, insects are easily caught. Insects provide 65 to 80 percent protein
compared to 20 percent for beef. This fact makes insects an important, if not overly appetizing, food
source. Insects to avoid include all adults that sting or bite, hairy or brightly colored insects, and
caterpillars and insects that have a pungent odor. Also avoid spiders and common disease carriers such
as ticks, flies, and mosquitoes.
Rotting logs lying on the ground are excellent places to look for a variety of insects including ants,
termites, beetles, and grubs, which are beetle larvae. Do not overlook insect nests on or in the ground.
Grassy areas, such as fields, are good areas to search because the insects are easily seen. Stones,
boards, or other materials lying on the ground provide the insects with good nesting sites. Check these
sites. Insect larvae are also edible. Insects such as beetles and grasshoppers that have a hard outer
Page 72 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

shell will have parasites. Cook them before eating. Remove any wings and barbed legs also. You can eat
most insects raw. The taste varies from one species to another. Wood grubs are bland, while some
species of ants store honey in their bodies, giving them a sweet taste. You can grind a collection of
insects into a paste. You can mix them with edible vegetation. You can cook them to improve their taste.

Worms
Worms (Annelidea) are an excellent protein source. Dig for them in damp humus soil or watch for them
on the ground after a rain. After capturing them, drop them into clean, potable water for a few minutes.
The worms will naturally purge or wash themselves out, after which you can eat them raw.

Crustaceans
Freshwater shrimp range in size from 0.25 centimeter up to 2.5 centimeters. They can form rather large
colonies in mats of floating algae or in mud bottoms of ponds and lakes.
Crayfish are akin to marine lobsters and crabs. You can distinguish them by their hard exoskeleton and
five pairs of legs, the front pair having oversized pincers. Crayfish are active at night, but you can locate
them in the daytime by looking under and around stones in streams. You can also find them by looking in
the soft mud near the chimneylike breathing holes of their nests. You can catch crayfish by tying bits of
offal or internal organs to a string. When the crayfish grabs the bait, pull it to shore before it has a chance
to release the bait.
You find saltwater lobsters, crabs, and shrimp from the surf's edge out to water 10 meters deep. Shrimp
may come to a light at night where you can scoop them up with a net. You can catch lobsters and crabs
with a baited trap or a baited hook. Crabs will come to bait placed at the edge of the surf, where you can
trap or net them. Lobsters and crabs are nocturnal and caught best at night.

Mollusks
This class includes octopuses and freshwater and saltwater shellfish such as snails, clams, mussels,
bivalves, barnacles, periwinkles, chitons, and sea urchins (Figure 8-1). You find bivalves similar to our
freshwater mussel and terrestrial and aquatic snails worldwide under all water conditions.

Page 73 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

River snails or freshwater periwinkles are plentiful in rivers, streams, and lakes of northern coniferous
forests. These snails may be pencil point or globular in shape.
In fresh water, look for mollusks in the shallows, especially in water with a sandy or muddy bottom. Look
for the narrow trails they leave in the mud or for the dark elliptical slit of their open valves.
Near the sea, look in the tidal pools and the wet sand. Rocks along beaches or extending as reefs into
deeper water often bear clinging shellfish. Snails and limpets cling to rocks and seaweed from the low
water mark upward. Large snails, called chitons, adhere tightly to rocks above the surf line.
Mussels usually form dense colonies in rock pools, on logs, or at the base of boulders.
CAUTION
Mussels may be poisonous in tropical zones during the summer!
Steam, boil, or bake mollusks in the shell. They make excellent stews in combination with greens and
tubers.
CAUTION
Do not eat shellfish that are not covered by water at high tide!

Fish
Page 74 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Fish represent a good source of protein and fat. They offer some distinct advantages to the survivor or
evader. They are usually more abundant than mammal wildlife, and the ways to get them are silent. To
be successful at catching fish, you must know their habits. For instance, fish tend to feed heavily before a
storm. Fish are not likely to feed after a storm when the water is muddy and swollen. Light often attracts
fish at night. When there is a heavy current, fish will rest in places where there is an eddy, such as near
rocks. Fish will also gather where there are deep pools, under overhanging brush, and in and around
submerged foliage, logs, or other objects that offer them shelter.
There are no poisonous freshwater fish. However, the catfish species has sharp, needlelike protrusions
on its dorsal fins and barbels. These can inflict painful puncture wounds that quickly become infected.
Cook all freshwater fish to kill parasites. Also cook saltwater fish caught within a reef or within the
influence of a freshwater source as a precaution. Any marine life obtained farther out in the sea will not
contain parasites because of the saltwater environment. You can eat these raw.
Certain saltwater species of fish have poisonous flesh. In some species the poison occurs seasonally in
others, it is permanent. Examples of poisonous saltwater fish are the porcupine fish, triggerfish, cowfish,
thorn fish, oilfish, red snapper, jack, and puffer (Figure 8-2). The barracuda, while not actually poisonous
itself, may transmit ciguatera (fish poisoning) if eaten raw.

Page 75 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Amphibians
Frogs and salamanders are easily found around bodies of fresh water. Frogs seldom move from the
safety of the water's edge. At the first sign of danger, they plunge into the water and bury themselves in
the mud and debris. There are few poisonous species of frogs. Avoid any brightly colored frog or one that
has a distinct "X" mark on it's back. Do not confuse toads with frogs. You normally find toads in drier
environments. Several species of toads secrete a poisonous substance through their skin as a defense
against attack. Therefore, to avoid poisoning, do not handle or eat toads.
Salamanders are nocturnal. The best time to catch them is at night using a light. They can range in size
from a few centimeters to well over 60 centimeters in length. Look in water around rocks and mud banks
for salamanders.

Reptiles
Page 76 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Reptiles are a good protein source and relatively easy to catch. You should cook them, but in an
emergency, you can eat them raw. Their raw flesh may transmit parasites, but because reptiles are coldblooded, they do not carry the blood diseases of the warm-blooded animals.
The box turtle is a commonly encountered turtle that you should not eat. It feeds on poisonous
mushrooms and may build up a highly toxic poison in its flesh. Cooking does not destroy this toxin. Avoid
the hawksbill turtle, found in the Atlantic Ocean, because of its poisonous thorax gland. Poisonous
snakes, alligators, crocodiles, and large sea turtles present obvious hazards to the survivor.

Birds
All species of birds are edible, although the flavor will vary considerably. You may skin fish-eating birds
to improve their taste. As with any wild animal, you must understand birds' common habits to have a
realistic chance of capturing them. You can take pigeons, as well as some other species, from their roost
at night by hand. During the nesting season, some species will not leave the nest even when
approached. Knowing where and when the birds nest makes catching them easier (Figure 8-3). Birds
tend to have regular flyways going from the roost to a feeding area, to water, and so forth. Careful
observation should reveal where these flyways are and indicate good areas for catching birds in nets
stretched across the flyways (Figure 8-4). Roosting sites and waterholes are some of the most promising
areas for trapping or snaring.

Page 77 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Nesting birds present another food source--eggs. Remove all but two or three eggs from the clutch,
marking the ones that you leave. The bird will continue to lay more eggs to fill the clutch. Continue
removing the fresh eggs, leaving the ones you marked.

Mammals
Mammals are excellent protein sources and, for Americans, the most tasty food source. There are some
drawbacks to obtaining mammals. In a hostile environment, the enemy may detect any traps or snares
placed on land. The amount of injury an animal can inflict is in direct proportion to its size. All mammals
have teeth and nearly all will bite in self-defense. Even a squirrel can inflict a serious wound and any bite
presents a serious risk of infection. Also, a mother can be extremely aggressive in defense of her young.
Any animal with no route of escape will fight when cornered.
All mammals are edible; however, the polar bear and bearded seal have toxic levels of vitamin A in their
livers. The platypus, native to Australia and Tasmania, is an egg-laying, semiaquatic mammal that has
poisonous glands. Scavenging mammals, such as the opossum, may carry diseases.

TRAPS AND SNARES
For an unarmed survivor or evader, or when the sound of a rifle shot could be a problem, trapping or
snaring wild game is a good alternative. Several well-placed traps have the potential to catch much more
game than a man with a rifle is likely to shoot. To be effective with any type of trap or snare, you must-•
•
•

Be familiar with the species of animal you intend to catch.
Be capable of constructing a proper trap.
Not alarm the prey by leaving signs of your presence.

There are no catchall traps you can set for all animals. You must determine what species are in a given
area and set your traps specifically with those animals in mind. Look for the following:
•
•
•
•
•
•

Runs and trails.
Tracks.
Droppings.
Chewed or rubbed vegetation.
Nesting or roosting sites.
Feeding and watering areas.
Page 78 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Position your traps and snares where there is proof that animals pass through. You must determine if it is
a "run" or a "trail." A trail will show signs of use by several species and will be rather distinct. A run is
usually smaller and less distinct and will only contain signs of one species. You may construct a perfect
snare, but it will not catch anything if haphazardly placed in the woods. Animals have bedding areas,
waterholes, and feeding areas with trails leading from one to another. You must place snares and traps
around these areas to be effective.
For an evader in a hostile environment, trap and snare concealment is important. It is equally important,
however, not to create a disturbance that will alarm the animal and cause it to avoid the trap. Therefore,
if you must dig, remove all fresh dirt from the area. Most animals will instinctively avoid a pitfall-type trap.
Prepare the various parts of a trap or snare away from the site, carry them in, and set them up. Such
actions make it easier to avoid disturbing the local vegetation, thereby alerting the prey. Do not use
freshly cut, live vegetation to construct a trap or snare. Freshly cut vegetation will "bleed" sap that has an
odor the prey will be able to smell. It is an alarm signal to the animal.
You must remove or mask the human scent on and around the trap you set. Although birds do not have
a developed sense of smell, nearly all mammals depend on smell even more than on sight. Even the
slightest human scent on a trap will alarm the prey and cause it to avoid the area. Actually removing the
scent from a trap is difficult but masking it is relatively easy. Use the fluid from the gall and urine bladders
of previous kills. Do not use human urine. Mud, particularly from an area with plenty of rotting vegetation,
is also good. Use it to coat your hands when handling the trap and to coat the trap when setting it. In
nearly all parts of the world, animals know the smell of burned vegetation and smoke. It is only when a
fire is actually burning that they become alarmed. Therefore, smoking the trap parts is an effective
means to mask your scent. If one of the above techniques is not practical, and if time permits, allow a
trap to weather for a few days and then set it. Do not handle a trap while it is weathering. When you
position the trap, camouflage it as naturally as possible to prevent detection by the enemy and to avoid
alarming the prey.
Traps or snares placed on a trail or run should use channelization. To build a channel, construct a
funnel-shaped barrier extending from the sides of the trail toward the trap, with the narrowest part
nearest the trap. Channelization should be inconspicuous to avoid alerting the prey. As the animal gets
to the trap, it cannot turn left or right and continues into the trap. Few wild animals will back up, preferring
to face the direction of travel. Channelization does not have to be an impassable barrier. You only have
to make it inconvenient for the animal to go over or through the barrier. For best effect, the
channelization should reduce the trail's width to just slightly wider than the targeted animal's body.
Maintain this constriction at least as far back from the trap as the animal's body length, then begin the
widening toward the mouth of the funnel.

Use of Bait
Baiting a trap or snare increases your chances of catching an animal. When catching fish, you must bait
nearly all the devices. Success with an unbaited trap depends on its placement in a good location. A
baited trap can actually draw animals to it. The bait should be something the animal knows. This bait,
however, should not be so readily available in the immediate area that the animal can get it close by. For
example, baiting a trap with corn in the middle of a corn field would not be likely to work. Likewise, if corn
is not grown in the region, a corn-baited trap may arouse an animal's curiosity and keep it alerted while it
ponders the strange food. Under such circumstances it may not go for the bait. One bait that works well
on small mammals is the peanut butter from a meal, ready-to-eat (MRE) ration. Salt is also a good bait.
When using such baits, scatter bits of it around the trap to give the prey a chance to sample it and
develop a craving for it. The animal will then overcome some of its caution before it gets to the trap.
If you set and bait a trap for one species but another species takes the bait without being caught, try to
determine what the animal was. Then set a proper trap for that animal, using the same bait.
Note: Once you have successfully trapped an animal, you will not only gain confidence in
your ability, you also will have resupplied yourself with bait for several more traps.

Trap and Snare Construction
Page 79 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Traps and snares crush, choke, hang, or entangle the prey. A single trap or snare will commonly
incorporate two or more of these principles. The mechanisms that provide power to the trap are almost
always very simple. The struggling victim, the force of gravity, or a bent sapling's tension provides the
power.
The heart of any trap or snare is the trigger. When planning a trap or snare, ask yourself how it should
affect the prey, what is the source of power, and what will be the most efficient trigger. Your answers will
help you devise a specific trap for a specific species. Traps are designed to catch and hold or to catch
and kill. Snares are traps that incorporate a noose to accomplish either function.

Simple Snare
A simple snare (Figure 8-5) consists of a noose placed over a trail or den hole and attached to a firmly
planted stake. If the noose is some type of cordage placed upright on a game trail, use small twigs or
blades of grass to hold it up. Filaments from spider webs are excellent for holding nooses open. Make
sure the noose is large enough to pass freely over the animal's head. As the animal continues to move,
the noose tightens around its neck. The more the animal struggles, the tighter the noose gets. This type
of snare usually does not kill the animal. If you use cordage, it may loosen enough to slip off the animal's
neck. Wire is therefore the best choice for a simple snare.

Drag Noose
Use a drag noose on an animal run (Figure 8-6). Place forked sticks on either side of the run and lay a
sturdy crossmember across them. Tie the noose to the crossmember and hang it at a height above the
animal's head. (Nooses designed to catch by the head should never be low enough for the prey to step
into with a foot.) As the noose tightens around the animal's neck, the animal pulls the crossmember from
the forked sticks and drags it along. The surrounding vegetation quickly catches the crossmember and
the animal becomes entangled.

Page 80 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Twitch-Up
A twitch-up is a supple sapling, which, when bent over and secured with a triggering device, will provide
power to a variety of snares. Select a hardwood sapling along the trail. A twitch-up will work much faster
and with more force if you remove all the branches and foliage.

Twitch-Up Snare
A simple twitch-up snare uses two forked sticks, each with a long and short leg (Figure 8-7). Bend the
twitch-up and mark the trail below it. Drive the long leg of one forked stick firmly into the ground at that
point. Ensure the cut on the short leg of this stick is parallel to the ground. Tie the long leg of the
remaining forked stick to a piece of cordage secured to the twitch-up. Cut the short leg so that it catches
on the short leg of the other forked stick. Extend a noose over the trail. Set the trap by bending the
twitch-up and engaging the short legs of the forked sticks. When an animal catches its head in the
noose, it pulls the forked sticks apart, allowing the twitch-up to spring up and hang the prey.
Note: Do not use green sticks for the trigger. The sap that oozes out could glue them
together.

Page 81 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Squirrel Pole
A squirrel pole is a long pole placed against a tree in an area showing a lot of squirrel activity (Figure 88). Place several wire nooses along the top and sides of the pole so that a squirrel trying to go up or
down the pole will have to pass through one or more of them. Position the nooses (5 to 6 centimeters in
diameter) about 2.5 centimeters off the pole. Place the top and bottom wire nooses 45 centimeters from
the top and bottom of the pole to prevent the squirrel from getting its feet on a solid surface. If this
happens, the squirrel will chew through the wire. Squirrels are naturally curious. After an initial period of
caution, they will try to go up or down the pole and will get caught in a noose. The struggling animal will
soon fall from the pole and strangle. Other squirrels will soon follow and, in this way, you can catch
several squirrels. You can emplace multiple poles to increase the catch.

Ojibwa Bird Pole
Page 82 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

An Ojibwa bird pole is a snare used by native Americans for centuries (Figure 8-9). To be effective, place
it in a relatively open area away from tall trees. For best results, pick a spot near feeding areas, dusting
areas, or watering holes. Cut a pole 1.8 to 2.1 meters long and trim away all limbs and foliage. Do not
use resinous wood such as pine. Sharpen the upper end to a point, then drill a small diameter hole 5 to
7.5 centimeters down from the top. Cut a small stick 10 to 15 centimeters long and shape one end so
that it will almost fit into the hole. This is the perch. Plant the long pole in the ground with the pointed end
up. Tie a small weight, about equal to the weight of the targeted species, to a length of cordage. Pass
the free end of the cordage through the hole, and tie a slip noose that covers the perch. Tie a single
overhand knot in the cordage and place the perch against the hole. Allow the cordage to slip through the
hole until the overhand knot rests against the pole and the top of the perch. The tension of the overhand
knot against the pole and perch will hold the perch in position. Spread the noose over the perch,
ensuring it covers the perch and drapes over on both sides. Most birds prefer to rest on something above
ground and will land on the perch. As soon as the bird lands, the perch will fall, releasing the over-hand
knot and allowing the weight to drop. The noose will tighten around the bird's feet, capturing it. If the
weight is too heavy, it will cut the bird's feet off, allowing it to escape.

Noosing Wand
A noose stick or "noosing wand" is useful for capturing roosting birds or small mammals (Figure 8-10). It
requires a patient operator. This wand is more a weapon than a trap. It consists of a pole (as long as you
can effectively handle) with a slip noose of wire or stiff cordage at the small end. To catch an animal, you
slip the noose over the neck of a roosting bird and pull it tight. You can also place it over a den hole and
hide in a nearby blind. When the animal emerges from the den, you jerk the pole to tighten the noose
and thus capture the animal. Carry a stout club to kill the prey.

Treadle Spring Snare
Use a treadle snare against small game on a trail (Figure 8-11). Dig a shallow hole in the trail. Then drive
a forked stick (fork down) into the ground on each side of the hole on the same side of the trail. Select
two fairly straight sticks that span the two forks. Position these two sticks so that their ends engage the
forks. Place several sticks over the hole in the trail by positioning one end over the lower horizontal stick
Page 83 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

and the other on the ground on the other side of the hole. Cover the hole with enough sticks so that the
prey must step on at least one of them to set off the snare. Tie one end of a piece of cordage to a twitchup or to a weight suspended over a tree limb. Bend the twitch-up or raise the suspended weight to
determine where You will tie a 5 centimeter or so long trigger. Form a noose with the other end of the
cordage. Route and spread the noose over the top of the sticks over the hole. Place the trigger stick
against the horizontal sticks and route the cordage behind the sticks so that the tension of the power
source will hold it in place. Adjust the bottom horizontal stick so that it will barely hold against the trigger.
A the animal places its foot on a stick across the hole, the bottom horizontal stick moves down, releasing
the trigger and allowing the noose to catch the animal by the foot. Because of the disturbance on the
trail, an animal will be wary. You must therefore use channelization.

Figure 4 Deadfall
The figure 4 is a trigger used to drop a weight onto a prey and crush it (Figure 8-12). The type of weight
used may vary, but it should be heavy enough to kill or incapacitate the prey immediately. Construct the
Page 84 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

figure 4 using three notched sticks. These notches hold the sticks together in a figure 4 pattern when
under tension. Practice making this trigger before-hand; it requires close tolerances and precise angles
in its construction.

Paiute Deadfall
The Paiute deadfall is similar to the figure 4 but uses a piece of cordage and a catch stick (Figure 8-13).
It has the advantage of being easier to set than the figure 4. Tie one end of a piece of cordage to the
lower end of the diagonal stick. Tie the other end of the cordage to another stick about 5 centimeters
long. This 5-centimeter stick is the catch stick. Bring the cord halfway around the vertical stick with the
catch stick at a 90-degree angle. Place the bait stick with one end against the drop weight, or a peg
driven into the ground, and the other against the catch stick. When a prey disturbs the bait stick, it falls
free, releasing the catch stick. As the diagonal stick flies up, the weight falls, crushing the prey.

Page 85 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Bow Trap
A bow trap is one of the deadliest traps. It is dangerous to man as well as animals (Figure 8-14). To
construct this trap, build a bow and anchor it to the ground with pegs. Adjust the aiming point as you
anchor the bow. Lash a toggle stick to the trigger stick. Two upright sticks driven into the ground hold the
trigger stick in place at a point where the toggle stick will engage the pulled bow string. Place a catch
stick between the toggle stick and a stake driven into the ground. Tie a trip wire or cordage to the catch
stick and route it around stakes and across the game trail where you tie it off (as in Figure 8-14). When
the prey trips the trip wire, the bow looses an arrow into it. A notch in the bow serves to help aim the
arrow.
WARNING
This is a lethal trap. Approach it with caution and from the rear only!

Page 86 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Pig Spear Shaft
To construct the pig spear shaft, select a stout pole about 2.5 meters long (Figure 8-15). At the smaller
end, firmly lash several small stakes. Lash the large end tightly to a tree along the game trail. Tie a
length of cordage to another tree across the trail. Tie a sturdy, smooth stick to the other end of the cord.
From the first tree, tie a trip wire or cord low to the ground, stretch it across the trail, and tie it to a catch
stick. Make a slip ring from vines or other suitable material. Encircle the trip wire and the smooth stick
with the slip ring. Emplace one end of another smooth stick within the slip ring and its other end against
the second tree. Pull the smaller end of the spear shaft across the trail and position it between the short
cord and the smooth stick. As the animal trips the trip wire, the catch stick pulls the slip ring off the
smooth sticks, releasing the spear shaft that springs across the trail and impales the prey against the
tree.
WARNING
This is a lethal trap. Approach it with caution!

Bottle Trap
A bottle trap is a simple trap for mice and voles (Figure 8-16). Dig a hole 30 to 45 centimeters deep that
is wider at the bottom than at the top. Make the top of the hole as small as possible. Place a piece of
bark or wood over the hole with small stones under it to hold it up 2.5 to 5 centimeters off the ground.
Mice or voles will hide under the cover to escape danger and fall into the hole. They cannot climb out
because of the wall's backward slope. Use caution when checking this trap; it is an excellent hiding place
for snakes.

Page 87 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

KILLING DEVICES
There are several killing devices that you can construct to help you obtain small game to help you
survive. The rabbit stick, the spear, the bow and arrow, and the sling are such devices.

Rabbit Stick
One of the simplest and most effective killing devices is a stout stick as long as your arm, from fingertip
to shoulder, called a "rabbit stick." You can throw it either overhand or sidearm and with considerable
force. It is very effective against small game that stops and freezes as a defense.

Spear
You can make a spear to kill small game and to fish. Jab with the spear, do not throw it. See spearfishing
below.

Bow and Arrow
A good bow is the result of many hours of work. You can construct a suitable short-term bow fairly easily.
When it loses its spring or breaks, you can replace it. Select a hardwood stick about one meter long that
is free of knots or limbs. Carefully scrape the large end down until it has the same pull as the small end.
Careful examination will show the natural curve of the stick. Always scrape from the side that faces you,
or the bow will break the first time you pull it. Dead, dry wood is preferable to green wood. To increase
the pull, lash a second bow to the first, front to front, forming an "X" when viewed from the side. Attach
the tips of the bows with cordage and only use a bowstring on one bow.
Select arrows from the straightest dry sticks available. The arrows should be about half as long as the
bow. Scrape each shaft smooth all around. You will probably have to straighten the shaft. You can bend
an arrow straight by heating the shaft over hot coals. Do not allow the shaft to scorch or bum. Hold the
shaft straight until it cools.
You can make arrowheads from bone, glass, metal, or pieces of rock. You can also sharpen and fire
harden the end of the shaft. To fire harden wood, hold it over hot coals, being careful not to bum or
scorch the wood.
You must notch the ends of the arrows for the bowstring. Cut or file the notch; do not split it. Fletching
(adding feathers to the notched end of an arrow) improves the arrow's flight characteristics, but is not
necessary on a field-expedient arrow.
Page 88 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Sling
You can make a sling by tying two pieces of cordage, about sixty centimeters long, at opposite ends of a
palm-sized piece of leather or cloth. Place a rock in the cloth and wrap one cord around the middle finger
and hold in your palm. Hold the other cord between the forefinger and thumb. To throw the rock, spin the
sling several times in a circle and release the cord between the thumb and forefinger. Practice to gain
proficiency. The sling is very effective against small game.

FISHING DEVICES
You can make your own fishhooks, nets and traps and use several methods to obtain fish in a survival
situation.

Improvised Fishhooks
You can make field-expedient fishhooks from pins, needles, wire, small nails, or any piece of metal. You
can also use wood, bone, coconut shell, thorns, flint, seashell, or tortoise shell. You can also make
fishhooks from any combination of these items (Figure 8-17).

To make a wooden hook, cut a piece of hardwood about 2.5 centimeters long and about 6 millimeters in
diameter to form the shank. Cut a notch in one end in which to place the point. Place the point (piece of
bone, wire, nail) in the notch. Hold the point in the notch and tie securely so that it does not move out of
position. This is a fairly large hook. To make smaller hooks, use smaller material.
A gorge is a small shaft of wood, bone, metal, or other material. It is sharp on both ends and notched in
the middle where you tie cordage. Bait the gorge by placing a piece of bait on it lengthwise. When the
fish swallows the bait, it also swallows the gorge.

Stakeout
A stakeout is a fishing device you can use in a hostile environment (Figure 8-18). To construct a
stakeout, drive two supple saplings into the bottom of the lake, pond, or stream with their tops just below
the water surface. Tie a cord between them and slightly below the surface. Tie two short cords with
hooks or gorges to this cord, ensuring that they cannot wrap around the poles or each other. They should
also not slip along the long cord. Bait the hooks or gorges.

Page 89 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Gill Net
If a gill net is not available, you can make one using parachute suspension line or similar material (Figure
8-19). Remove the core lines from the suspension line and tie the easing between two trees. Attach
several core lines to the easing by doubling them over and tying them with prusik knots or girth hitches.
The length of the desired net and the size of the mesh determine the number of core lines used and the
space between them. Starting at one end of the easing, tie the second and the third core lines together
using an overhand knot. Then tie the fourth and fifth, sixth and seventh, and so on, until you reach the
last core line. You should now have all core lines tied in pairs with a single core line hanging at each end.
Start the second row with the first core line, tie it to the second, the third to the fourth, and so on.

To keep the rows even and to regulate the size of the mesh, tie a guideline to the trees. Position the
guideline on the opposite side of the net you are working on. Move the guideline down after completing
each row. The lines will always hang in pairs and you always tie a cord from one pair to a cord from an
adjoining pair. Continue tying rows until the net is the desired width. Thread a suspension line easing
along the bottom of the net to strengthen it. Use the gill net as shown in Figure 8-20.

Page 90 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Fish Traps
You may trap fish using several methods (Figure 8-21). Fish baskets are one method. You construct
them by lashing several sticks together with vines into a funnel shape. You close the top, leaving a hole
large enough for the fish to swim through.

Page 91 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

You can also use traps to catch saltwater fish, as schools regularly approach the shore with the incoming
tide and often move parallel to the shore. Pick a location at high tide and build the trap at low tide. On
rocky shores, use natural rock pools. On coral islands, use natural pools on the surface of reefs by
blocking the openings as the tide recedes. On sandy shores, use sandbars and the ditches they enclose.
Build the trap as a low stone wall extending outward into the water and forming an angle with the shore.

Spearfishing
If you are near shallow water (about waist deep) where the fish are large and plentiful, you can spear
them. To make a spear, cut a long, straight sapling (Figure 8-22). Sharpen the end to a point or attach a
knife, jagged piece of bone, or sharpened metal. You can also make a spear by splitting the shaft a few
inches down from the end and inserting a piece of wood to act as a spreader. You then sharpen the two
separated halves to points. To spear fish, find an area where fish either gather or where there is a fish
run. Place the spear point into the water and slowly move it toward the fish. Then, with a sudden push,
impale the fish on the stream bottom. Do not try to lift the fish with the spear, as it with probably slip off
and you will lose it; hold the spear with one hand and grab and hold the fish with the other. Do not throw
the spear, especially if the point is a knife. You cannot afford to lose a knife in a survival situation. Be
alert to the problems caused by light refraction when looking at objects in the water.

Page 92 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Chop Fishing
At night, in an area with a good fish density, you can use a light to attract fish. Then, armed with a
machete or similar weapon, you can gather fish using the back side of the blade to strike them. Do not
use the sharp side as you will cut them in two pieces and end up losing some of the fish.

Fish Poison
Another way to catch fish is by using poison. Poison works quickly. It allows you to remain concealed
while it takes effect. It also enables you to catch several fish at one time. When using fish poison, be sure
to gather all of the affected fish, because many dead fish floating downstream could arouse suspicion.
Some plants that grow in warm regions of the world contain rotenone, a substance that stuns or kills
cold-blooded animals but does not harm persons who eat the animals. The best place to use rotenone,
or rotenone-producing plants, is in ponds or the headwaiters of small streams containing fish. Rotenone
works quickly on fish in water 21 degrees C (70 degrees F) or above. The fish rise helplessly to the
surface. It works slowly in water 10 to 21 degrees C (50 to 70 degrees F) and is ineffective in water
below 10 degrees C (50 degrees F). The following plants, used as indicated, will stun or kill fish:
Anamirta cocculus (Figure 8-23). This woody vine grows in southern Asia and on islands of the South
Pacific. Crush the bean-shaped seeds and throw them in the water.
Croton tiglium (Figure 8-23). This shrub or small tree grows in waste areas on islands of the South
Pacific. It bears seeds in three angled capsules. Crush the seeds and throw them into the water.
Barringtonia (Figure 8-23). These large trees grow near the sea in Malaya and parts of Polynesia. They
bear a fleshy one-seeded fruit. Crush the seeds and bark and throw into the water.
Derris eliptica (Figure 8-23). This large genus of tropical shrubs and woody vines is the main source of
commercially produced rotenone. Grind the roots into a powder and mix with water. Throw a large
quantity of the mixture into the water.
Duboisia (Figure 8-23). This shrub grows in Australia and bears white clusters of flowers and berrylike
fruit. Crush the plants and throw them into the water.
Tephrosia (Figure 8-23). This species of small shrubs, which bears beanlike pods, grows throughout the
tropics. Crush or bruise bundles of leaves and stems and throw them into the water.

Page 93 of 233

FM 21-76

•

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Lime. You can get lime from commercial sources and in agricultural areas that use large
quantities of it. You may produce your own by burning coral or seashells. Throw the lime into the
water.
Nut husks. Crush green husks from butternuts or black walnuts. Throw the husks into the water.

PREPARATION OF FISH AND GAME FOR
COOKING AND STORAGE
You must know how to prepare fish and game for cooking and storage in a survival situation. Improper
cleaning or storage can result in inedible fish or game.

Fish

Page 94 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Do not eat fish that appears spoiled. Cooking does not ensure that spoiled fish will be edible. Signs of
spoilage are-•
•
•
•
•
•

Sunken eyes.
Peculiar odor.
Suspicious color. (Gills should be red to pink. Scales should be a pronounced shade of gray, not
faded.)
Dents stay in the fish's flesh after pressing it with your thumb.
Slimy, rather than moist or wet body.
Sharp or peppery taste.

Eating spoiled or rotten fish may cause diarrhea, nausea, cramps, vomiting, itching, paralysis, or a
metallic taste in the mouth. These symptoms appear suddenly, one to six hours after eating. Induce
vomiting if symptoms appear.
Fish spoils quickly after death, especially on a hot day. Prepare fish for eating as soon as possible after
catching it. Cut out the gills and large blood vessels that lie near the spine. Gut fish that is more than 10
centimeters long. Scale or skin the fish.
You can impale a whole fish on a stick and cook it over an open fire. However, boiling the fish with the
skin on is the best way to get the most food value. The fats and oil are under the skin and, by boiling, you
can save the juices for broth. You can use any of the methods used to cook plant food to cook fish. Pack
fish into a ball of clay and bury it in the coals of a fire until the clay hardens. Break open the clay ball to
get to the cooked fish. Fish is done when the meat flakes off. If you plan to keep the fish for later, smoke
or fry it. To prepare fish for smoking, cut off the head and remove the backbone.

Snakes
To skin a snake, first cut off its head and bury it. Then cut the skin down the body 15 to 20 centimeters
(Figure 8-24). Peel the skin back, then grasp the skin in one hand and the body in the other and pull
apart. On large, bulky snakes it may be necessary to slit the belly skin. Cook snakes in the same manner
as small game. Remove the entrails and discard. Cut the snake into small sections and boil or roast it.

Birds
Page 95 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

After killing the bird, remove its feathers by either plucking or skinning. Remember, skinning removes
some of the food value. Open up the body cavity and remove its entrails, saving the craw (in seed-eating
birds), heart, and liver. Cut off the feet. Cook by boiling or roasting over a spit. Before cooking scavenger
birds, boil them at least 20 minutes to kill parasites.

Skinning and Butchering Game
Bleed the animal by cutting its throat. If possible, clean the carcass near a stream. Place the carcass
belly up and split the hide from throat to tail, cutting around all sexual organs (Figure 8-25). Remove the
musk glands at points A and B to avoid tainting the meat. For smaller mammals, cut the hide around the
body and insert two fingers under the hide on both sides of the cut and pull both pieces off (Figure 8-26).
Note: When cutting the hide, insert the knife blade under the skin and turn the blade up so
that only the hide gets cut. This will also prevent cutting hair and getting it on the meat.

Remove the entrails from smaller game by splitting the body open and pulling them out with the fingers.
Do not forget the chest cavity. For larger game, cut the gullet away from the diaphragm. Roll the entrails
out of the body. Cut around the anus, then reach into the lower abdominal cavity, grasp the lower
intestine, and pull to remove. Remove the urine bladder by pinching it off and cutting it below the fingers.
If you spill urine on the meat, wash it to avoid tainting the meat. Save the heart and liver. Cut these open
and inspect for signs of worms or other parasites. Also inspect the liver's color; it could indicate a
diseased animal. The liver's surface should be smooth and wet and its color deep red or purple. If the
liver appears diseased, discard it. However, a diseased liver does not indicate you cannot eat the muscle
tissue.
Page 96 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Cut along each leg from above the foot to the previously made body cut. Remove the hide by pulling it
away from the carcass, cutting the connective tissue where necessary. Cut off the head and feet.
Cut larger game into manageable pieces. First, slice the muscle tissue connecting the front legs to the
body. There are no bones or joints connecting the front legs to the body on four-legged animals. Cut the
hindquarters off where they join the body. You must cut around a large bone at the top of the leg and cut
to the ball and socket hip joint. Cut the ligaments around the joint and bend it back to separate it.
Remove the large muscles (the tenderloin) that lie on either side of the spine. Separate the ribs from the
backbone. There is less work and less wear on your knife if you break the ribs first, then cut through the
breaks.
Cook large meat pieces over a spit or boil them. You can stew or boil smaller pieces, particularly those
that remain attached to bone after the initial butchering, as soup or broth. You can cook body organs
such as the heart, liver, pancreas, spleen, and kidneys using the same methods as for muscle meat. You
can also cook and eat the brain. Cut the tongue out, skin it, boil it until tender, and eat it.

Smoking Meat
To smoke meat, prepare an enclosure around a fire (Figure 8-27). Two ponchos snapped together will
work. The fire does not need to be big or hot. The intent is to produce smoke, not heat. Do not use
resinous wood in the fire because its smoke will ruin the meat. Use hardwoods to produce good smoke.
The wood should be somewhat green. If it is too dry, soak it. Cut the meat into thin slices, no more than 6
centimeters thick, and drape them over a framework. Make sure none of the meat touches another piece.
Keep the poncho enclosure around the meat to hold the smoke and keep a close watch on the fire. Do
not let the fire get too hot. Meat smoked overnight in this manner will last about 1 week. Two days of
continuous smoking will preserve the meat for 2 to 4 weeks. Properly smoked meat will look like a dark,
curled, brittle stick and you can eat it without further cooking. You can also use a pit to smoke meat
(Figure 8-28).

Page 97 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Drying Meat
To preserve meat by drying, cut it into 6-millimeter strips with the grain. Hang the meat strips on a rack in
a sunny location with good air flow. Keep the strips out of the reach of animals and cover them to keep
blowflies off. Allow the meat to dry thoroughly before eating. Properly dried meat will have a dry, crisp
texture and will not feel cool to the touch.

Other Preservation Methods
You can also preserve meats using the freezing or brine and salt methods.

Freezing
In cold climates, you can freeze and keep meat indefinitely. Freezing is not a means of preparing meat.
You must still cook it before eating.

Brine and Salt
You can preserve meat by soaking it thoroughly in a saltwater solution. The solution must cover the
meat. You can also use salt by itself. Wash off the salt before cooking.

Page 98 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

CHAPTER 9 - SURVIVAL USE OF PLANTS

After having solved the problems of finding water, shelter, and animal food, you will have
to consider the use of plants you can eat. In a survival situation you should always be on
the lookout for familiar wild foods and live off the land whenever possible.
You must not count on being able to go for days without food as some sources would
suggest. Even in the most static survival situation, maintaining health through a complete
and nutritious diet is essential to maintaining strength and peace of mind.
Nature can provide you with food that will let you survive any ordeal, if you don't eat the
wrong plant. You must therefore learn as much as possible beforehand about the flora of
the region where you will be operating. Plants can provide you with medicines in a survival
situation. Plants can supply you with weapons and raw materials to construct shelters and
build fires. Plants can even provide you with chemicals for poisoning fish, preserving
animal hides, and for camouflaging yourself and your equipment.
Note: You will find illustrations of the plants described in this chapter in Appendixes B and
C.

EDIBILITY OF PLANTS
Plants are valuable sources of food because they are widely available, easily procured, and, in the
proper combinations, can meet all your nutritional needs.
WARNING
The critical factor in using plants for food is to avoid accidental poisoning. Eat only those plants you can
positively identify and you know are safe to eat.
Absolutely identify plants before using them as food. Poison hemlock has killed people who mistook it for
its relatives, wild carrots and wild parsnips.
At times you may find yourself in a situation for which you could not plan. In this instance you may not
have had the chance to learn the plant life of the region in which you must survive. In this case you can
use the Universal Edibility Test to determine which plants you can eat and those to avoid.
It is important to be able to recognize both cultivated and wild edible plants in a survival situation. Most of
the information in this chapter is directed towards identifying wild plants because information relating to
cultivated plants is more readily available.
Remember the following when collecting wild plants for food:

Page 99 of 233

FM 21-76

•

•
•
•

•

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Plants growing near homes and occupied buildings or along roadsides may have been sprayed
with pesticides. Wash them thoroughly. In more highly developed countries with many
automobiles, avoid roadside plants, if possible, due to contamination from exhaust emissions.
Plants growing in contaminated water or in water containing Giardia lamblia and other parasites
are contaminated themselves. Boil or disinfect them.
Some plants develop extremely dangerous fungal toxins. To lessen the chance of accidental
poisoning, do not eat any fruit that is starting to spoil or showing signs of mildew or fungus.
Plants of the same species may differ in their toxic or subtoxic compounds content because of
genetic or environmental factors. One example of this is the foliage of the common chokecherry.
Some chokecherry plants have high concentrations of deadly cyanide compounds while others
have low concentrations or none. Horses have died from eating wilted wild cherry leaves. Avoid
any weed, leaves, or seeds with an almondlike scent, a characteristic of the cyanide compounds.
Some people are more susceptible to gastric distress (from plants) than others. If you are
sensitive in this way, avoid unknown wild plants. If you are extremely sensitive to poison ivy,
avoid products from this family, including any parts from sumacs, mangoes, and cashews.
Some edible wild plants, such as acorns and water lily rhizomes, are bitter. These bitter
substances, usually tannin compounds, make them unpalatable. Boiling them in several changes
of water will usually remove these bitter properties.
Many valuable wild plants have high concentrations of oxalate compounds, also known as oxalic
acid. Oxalates produce a sharp burning sensation in your mouth and throat and damage the
kidneys. Baking, roasting, or drying usually destroys these oxalate crystals. The corm (bulb) of
the jack-in-the-pulpit is known as the "Indian turnip," but you can eat it only after removing these
crystals by slow baking or by drying.

WARNING
Do not eat mushrooms in a survival situation! The only way to tell if a mushroom is edible is by positive
identification. There is no room for experimentation. Symptoms of the most dangerous mushrooms
affecting the central nervous system may show up after several days have passed when it is too late to
reverse their effects.

Plant Identification
You identify plants, other than by memorizing particular varieties through familiarity, by using such
factors as leaf shape and margin, leaf arrangements, and root structure.
The basic leaf margins (Figure 9-1) are toothed, lobed, and toothless or smooth.

Page 100 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

These leaves may be lance-shaped, elliptical, egg-shaped, oblong, wedge-shaped, triangular, longpointed, or top-shaped (Figure 9-2).

The basic types of leaf arrangements (Figure 9-3) are opposite, alternate, compound, simple, and basal
rosette.

The basic types of root structures (Figure 9-4) are the bulb, clove, taproot, tuber, rhizome, corm, and
crown. Bulbs are familiar to us as onions and, when sliced in half, will show concentric rings. Cloves are
those bulblike structures that remind us of garlic and will separate into small pieces when broken apart.
This characteristic separates wild onions from wild garlic. Taproots resemble carrots and may be singlePage 101 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

rooted or branched, but usually only one plant stalk arises from each root. Tubers are like potatoes and
daylilies and you will find these structures either on strings or in clusters underneath the parent plants.
Rhizomes are large creeping rootstock or underground stems and many plants arise from the "eyes" of
these roots. Corms are similar to bulbs but are solid when cut rather than possessing rings. A crown is
the type of root structure found on plants such as asparagus and looks much like a mophead under the
soil's surface.

Learn as much as possible about plants you intend to use for food and their unique characteristics. Some
plants have both edible and poisonous parts. Many are edible only at certain times of the year. Others
may have poisonous relatives that look very similar to the ones you can eat or use for medicine.

Universal Edibility Test
There are many plants throughout the world. Tasting or swallowing even a small portion of some can
cause severe discomfort, extreme internal disorders, and even death. Therefore, if you have the slightest
doubt about a plant's edibility, apply the Universal Edibility Test (Figure 9-5) before eating any portion of
it.

Page 102 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Before testing a plant for edibility, make sure there are enough plants to make the testing worth your time
and effort. Each part of a plant (roots, leaves, flowers, and so on) requires more than 24 hours to test. Do
not waste time testing a plant that is not relatively abundant in the area.
Remember, eating large portions of plant food on an empty stomach may cause diarrhea, nausea, or
cramps. Two good examples of this are such familiar foods as green apples and wild onions. Even after
testing plant food and finding it safe, eat it in moderation.
You can see from the steps and time involved in testing for edibility just how important it is to be able to
identify edible plants.
To avoid potentially poisonous plants, stay away from any wild or unknown plants that have-•
•
•
•
•

Milky or discolored sap.
Beans, bulbs, or seeds inside pods.
Bitter or soapy taste.
Spines, fine hairs, or thorns.
Dill, carrot, parsnip, or parsleylike foliage.
Page 103 of 233

FM 21-76

•
•
•

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

"Almond" scent in woody parts and leaves.
Grain heads with pink, purplish, or black spurs.
Three-leaved growth pattern.

Using the above criteria as eliminators when choosing plants for the Universal Edibility Test will cause
you to avoid some edible plants. More important, these criteria will often help you avoid plants that are
potentially toxic to eat or touch.
An entire encyclopedia of edible wild plants could be written, but space limits the number of plants
presented here. Learn as much as possible about the plant life of the areas where you train regularly and
where you expect to be traveling or working. Listed below and later in this chapter are some of the most
common edible and medicinal plants. Detailed descriptions and photographs of these and other common
plants are at Appendix B.
TEMPERATE ZONE FOOD PLANTS
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Amaranth (Amaranthus retroflexus and other species)
Arrowroot (Sagittaria species)
Asparagus (Asparagus officinalis)
Beechnut (Fagus species)
Blackberries (Rubus species)
Blueberries (Vaccinium species)
Burdock (Arctium lappa)
Cattail (Typha species)
Chestnut (Castanea species)
Chicory (Cichorium intybus)
Chufa (Cyperus esculentus)
Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale)
Daylily (Hemerocallis fulva)
Nettle (Urtica species)
Oaks (Quercus species)
Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana)
Plantain (Plantago species)
Pokeweed (Phytolacca americana)
Prickly pear cactus (Opuntia species)
Purslane (Portulaca oleracea)
Sassafras (Sassafras albidum)
Sheep sorrel (Rumex acetosella)
Strawberries (Fragaria species)
Thistle (Cirsium species)
Water lily and lotus (Nuphar, Nelumbo, and other species)
Wild onion and garlic (Allium species)
Wild rose (Rosa species)
Wood sorrel (Oxalis species)

TROPICAL ZONE FOOD PLANTS
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Bamboo (Bambusa and other species)
Bananas (Musa species)
Breadfruit (Artocarpus incisa)
Cashew nut (Anacardium occidental)
Coconut (Cocos nucifera)
Mango (Mangifera indica)
Palms (various species)
Page 104 of 233

FM 21-76

•
•
•

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Papaya (Carica species)
Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum)
Taro (Colocasia species)

DESERT ZONE FOOD PLANTS

•
•
•
•
•

Acacia (Acacia farnesiana)
Agave (Agave species)
Cactus (various species)
Date palm (Phoenix dactylifera)
Desert amaranth (Amaranths palmeri)

Seaweeds
One plant you should never overlook is seaweed. It is a form of marine algae found on or near ocean
shores. There are also some edible freshwater varieties. Seaweed is a valuable source of iodine, other
minerals, and vitamin C. Large quantities of seaweed in an unaccustomed stomach can produce a
severe laxative effect.
When gathering seaweeds for food, find living plants attached to rocks or floating free. Seaweed washed
onshore any length of time may be spoiled or decayed. You can dry freshly harvested seaweeds for later
use.
Its preparation for eating depends on the type of seaweed. You can dry thin and tender varieties in the
sun or over a fire until crisp. Crush and add these to soups or broths. Boil thick, leathery seaweeds for a
short time to soften them. Eat them as a vegetable or with other foods. You can eat some varieties raw
after testing for edibility.
SEAWEEDS

•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Dulse (Rhodymenia palmata)
Green seaweed (Ulva lactuca)
Irish moss (Chondrus crispus)
Kelp (Alaria esculenta)
Laver (Porphyra species)
Mojaban (Sargassum fulvellum)
Sugar wrack (Laminaria saccharina)

Preparation of Plant Food
Although some plants or plant parts are edible raw, you must cook others to be edible or palatable.
Edible means that a plant or food will provide you with necessary nutrients, while palatable means that it
actually is pleasing to eat. Many wild plants are edible but barely palatable. It is a good idea to learn to
identify, prepare, and eat wild foods.
Methods used to improve the taste of plant food include soaking, boiling, cooking, or leaching. Leaching
is done by crushing the food (for example, acorns), placing it in a strainer, and pouring boiling water
through it or immersing it in running water.
Boil leaves, stems, and buds until tender, changing the water, if necessary, to remove any bitterness.
Page 105 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Boil, bake, or roast tubers and roots. Drying helps to remove caustic oxalates from some roots like those
in the Arum family.
Leach acorns in water, if necessary, to remove the bitterness. Some nuts, such as chestnuts, are good
raw, but taste better roasted.
You can eat many grains and seeds raw until they mature. When hard or dry, you may have to boil or
grind them into meal or flour.
The sap from many trees, such as maples, birches, walnuts, and sycamores, contains sugar. You may
boil these saps down to a syrup for sweetening. It takes about 35 liters of maple sap to make one liter of
maple syrup!

PLANTS FOR MEDICINE
In a survival situation you will have to use what is available. In using plants and other natural remedies,
positive identification of the plants involved is as critical as in using them for food. Proper use of these
plants is equally important.

Terms and Definitions
The following terms, and their definitions, are associated with medicinal plant use:
•
•

•

Poultice. The name given to crushed leaves or other plant parts, possibly heated, that you apply
to a wound or sore either directly or wrapped in cloth or paper.
Infusion or tisane or tea. The preparation of medicinal herbs for internal or external application.
You place a small quantity of a herb in a container, pour hot water over it, and let it steep
(covered or uncovered) before use.
Decoction. The extract of a boiled down or simmered herb leaf or root. You add herb leaf or root
to water. You bring them to a sustained boil or simmer to draw their chemicals into the water. The
average ratio is about 28 to 56 grams (1 to 2 ounces) of herb to 0.5 liter of water.
Expressed juice. Liquids or saps squeezed from plant material and either applied to the wound or
made into another medicine.

Many natural remedies work slower than the medicines you know. Therefore, start with smaller doses
and allow more time for them to take effect. Naturally, some will act more rapidly than others.

Specific Remedies
The following remedies are for use only in a survival situation, not for routine use:
•

•

Diarrhea. Drink tea made from the roots of blackberries and their relatives to stop diarrhea. White
oak bark and other barks containing tannin are also effective. However, use them with caution
when nothing else is available because of possible negative effects on the kidneys. You can also
stop diarrhea by eating white clay or campfire ashes. Tea made from cowberry or cranberry or
hazel leaves works too.
Antihemorrhagics. Make medications to stop bleeding from a poultice of the puffball mushroom,
from plantain leaves, or most effectively from the leaves of the common yarrow or woundwort
(Achillea millefolium).
Antiseptics. Use to cleanse wounds, sores, or rashes. You can make them from the expressed
juice from wild onion or garlic, or expressed juice from chickweed leaves or the crushed leaves of
dock. You can also make antiseptics from a decoction of burdock root, mallow leaves or roots, or
white oak bark. All these medications are for external use only.
Fevers. Treat a fever with a tea made from willow bark, an infusion of elder flowers or fruit, linden
flower tea, or elm bark decoction.

Page 106 of 233

FM 21-76

•

•
•
•
•
•
•

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Colds and sore throats. Treat these illnesses with a decoction made from either plantain leaves or
willow bark. You can also use a tea made from burdock roots, mallow or mullein flowers or roots,
or mint leaves.
Aches, pains, and sprains. Treat with externally applied poultices of dock, plantain, chickweed,
willow bark, garlic, or sorrel. You can also use salves made by mixing the expressed juices of
these plants in animal fat or vegetable oils.
Itching. Relieve the itch from insect bites, sunburn, or plant poisoning rashes by applying a
poultice of jewelweed (Impatiens biflora) or witch hazel leaves (Hamamelis virginiana). The
jewelweed juice will help when applied to poison ivy rashes or insect stings. It works on sunburn
as well as aloe vera.
Sedatives. Get help in falling asleep by brewing a tea made from mint leaves or passionflower
leaves.
Hemorrhoids. Treat them with external washes from elm bark or oak bark tea, from the expressed
juice of plantain leaves, or from a Solomon's seal root decoction.
Constipation. Relieve constipation by drinking decoctions from dandelion leaves, rose hips, or
walnut bark. Eating raw daylily flowers will also help.
Worms or intestinal parasites. Using moderation, treat with tea made from tansy (Tanacetum
vulgare) or from wild carrot leaves.
Gas and cramps. Use a tea made from carrot seeds as an antiflatulent; use tea made from mint
leaves to settle the stomach.
Antifungal washes. Make a decoction of walnut leaves or oak bark or acorns to treat ringworm
and athlete's foot. Apply frequently to the site, alternating with exposure to direct sunlight.

MISCELLANEOUS USES OF PLANTS
Make dyes from various plants to color clothing or to camouflage your skin. Usually, you
will have to boil the plants to get the best results. Onion skins produce yellow, walnut hulls
produce brown, and pokeberries provide a purple dye.

Make fibers and cordage from plant fibers. Most commonly used are the stems from
nettles and milkweeds, yucca plants, and the inner bark of trees like the linden.

Make fish poison by immersing walnut hulls in a small area of quiet water. This poison
makes it impossible for the fish to breathe but doesn't adversely affect their edibility.

Make tinder for starting fires from cattail fluff, cedar bark, lighter knot wood from pine
trees, or hardened sap from resinous wood trees.

Make insulation by fluffing up female cattail heads or milkweed down.

Page 107 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Make insect repellents by applying the expressed juice of wild garlic or onion to the skin,
by placing sassafras leaves in your shelter, or by burning or smudging cattail seed hair
fibers.
Plants can be your ally as long as you use them cautiously. The key to the safe use of plants is positive
identification whether you use them as food or medicine or in constructing shelters or equipment.

Page 108 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

CHAPTER 10 - POISONOUS PLANTS

Successful use of plants in a survival situation depends on positive identification. Knowing
poisonous plants is as important to a survivor as knowing edible plants. Knowing the
poisonous plants will help you avoid sustaining injuries from them.

HOW PLANTS POISON
Plants generally poison by-•
•
•

Ingestion. When a person eats a part of a poisonous plant.
Contact. When a person makes contact with a poisonous plant that causes any type of skin
irritation or dermatitis.
Absorption or inhalation. When a person either absorbs the poison through the skin or inhales it
into the respiratory system.

Plant poisoning ranges from minor irritation to death. A common question asked is, "How poisonous is
this plant?" It is difficult to say how poisonous plants are because-•
•
•
•

Some plants require contact with a large amount of the plant before noticing any adverse reaction
while others will cause death with only a small amount.
Every plant will vary in the amount of toxins it contains due to different growing conditions and
slight variations in subspecies.
Every person has a different level of resistance to toxic substances.
Some persons may be more sensitive to a particular plant.

Some common misconceptions about poisonous plants are-•
•
•

Watch the animals and eat what they eat. Most of the time this statement is true, but some
animals can eat plants that are poisonous to humans.
Boil the plant in water and any poisons will be removed. Boiling removes many poisons, but not
all.
Plants with a red color are poisonous. Some plants that are red are poisonous, but not all.

The point is there is no one rule to aid in identifying poisonous plants. You must make an effort to learn
as much about them as possible.

ALL ABOUT PLANTS
It is to your benefit to learn as much about plants as possible. Many poisonous plants look like their
edible relatives or like other edible plants. For example, poison hemlock appears very similar to wild
Page 109 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

carrot. Certain plants are safe to eat in certain seasons or stages of growth and poisonous in other
stages. For example, the leaves of the pokeweed are edible when it first starts to grow, but it soon
becomes poisonous. You can eat some plants and their fruits only when they are ripe. For example, the
ripe fruit of mayapple is edible, but all other parts and the green fruit are poisonous. Some plants contain
both edible and poisonous parts; potatoes and tomatoes are common plant foods, but their green parts
are poisonous.
Some plants become toxic after wilting. For example, when the black cherry starts to wilt, hydrocyanic
acid develops. Specific preparation methods make some plants edible that are poisonous raw. You can
eat the thinly sliced and thoroughly dried corms (drying may take a year) of the jack-in-the-pulpit, but they
are poisonous if not thoroughly dried.
Learn to identify and use plants before a survival situation. Some sources of information about plants are
pamphlets, books, films, nature trails, botanical gardens, local markets, and local natives. Gather and
cross-reference information from as many sources as possible, because many sources will not contain
all the information needed.

RULES FOR AVOIDING POISONOUS PLANTS
Your best policy is to be able to look at a plant and identify it with absolute certainty and to know its uses
or dangers. Many times this is not possible. If you have little or no knowledge of the local vegetation, use
the rules to select plants for the "Universal Edibility Test." Remember, avoid -•

•

All mushrooms. Mushroom identification is very difficult and must be precise, even more so than
with other plants. Some mushrooms cause death very quickly. Some mushrooms have no known
antidote. Two general types of mushroom poisoning are gastrointestinal and central nervous
system.
Contact with or touching plants unnecessarily.

CONTACT DERMATITIS
Contact dermatitis from plants will usually cause the most trouble in the field. The effects may be
persistent, spread by scratching, and are particularly dangerous if there is contact in or around the eyes.
The principal toxin of these plants is usually an oil that gets on the skin upon contact with the plant. The
oil can also get on equipment and then infect whoever touches the equipment. Never bum a contact
poisonous plant because the smoke may be as harmful as the plant. There is a greater danger of being
affected when overheated and sweating. The infection may be local or it may spread over the body.
Symptoms may take from a few hours to several days to appear. Signs and symptoms can include
burning, reddening, itching, swelling, and blisters.
When you first contact the poisonous plants or the first symptoms appear, try to remove the oil by
washing with soap and cold water. If water is not available, wipe your skin repeatedly with dirt or sand.
Do not use dirt if blisters have developed. The dirt may break open the blisters and leave the body open
to infection. After you have removed the oil, dry the area. You can wash with a tannic acid solution and
crush and rub jewelweed on the affected area to treat plant-caused rashes. You can make tannic acid
from oak bark.
Poisonous plants that cause contact dermatitis are-•
•
•
•
•
•

Cowhage.
Poison ivy.
Poison oak.
Poison sumac.
Rengas tree.
Trumpet vine.

INGESTION POISONING
Ingestion poisoning can be very serious and could lead to death very quickly. Do not eat any plant unless
you have positively identified it first. Keep a log of all plants eaten.
Page 110 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Signs and symptoms of ingestion poisoning can include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal cramps,
depressed heartbeat and respiration, headaches, hallucinations, dry mouth, unconsciousness, coma,
and death.
If you suspect plant poisoning, try to remove the poisonous material from the victim's mouth and stomach
as soon as possible. Induce vomiting by tickling the back of his throat or by giving him warm saltwater, if
he is conscious. Dilute the poison by administering large quantities of water or milk, if he is conscious.
The following plants can cause ingestion poisoning if eaten:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Castor bean.
Chinaberry.
Death camas.
Lantana.
Manchineel.
Oleander.
Pangi.
Physic nut.
Poison and water hemlocks.
Rosary pea.
Strychnine tree.

See Appendix C for photographs and descriptions of these plants.

Page 111 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

CHAPTER 11 - DANGEROUS ANIMALS

Animals rarely are as threatening to the survivor as the rest of the environment. Common
sense tells the survivor to avoid encounters with lions, bears, and other large or
dangerous animals. You should also avoid large grazing animals with horns, hooves, and
great weight. Your actions may prevent unexpected meetings. Move carefully through
their environment. Do not attract large predators by leaving food lying around your camp.
Carefully survey the scene before entering water or forests.
Smaller animals actually present more of a threat to the survivor than large animals. To
compensate for their size, nature has given many small animals weapons such as fangs
and stingers to defend themselves. Each year, a few people are bitten by sharks, mauled
by alligators, and attacked by bears. Most of these incidents were in some way the
victim's fault. However, each year more victims die from bites by relatively small
venomous snakes than by large dangerous animals. Even more victims die from allergic
reactions to bee stings. For this reason, we will pay more attention to smaller and
potentially more dangerous creatures. These are the animals you are more likely to meet
as you unwittingly move into their habitat, or they slip into your environment unnoticed.
Keeping a level head and an awareness of your surroundings will keep you alive if you
use a few simple safety procedures. Do not let curiosity and carelessness kill or injure
you.

INSECTS AND ARACHNIDS
You recognize and identify insects, except centipedes and millipedes, by their six legs while arachnids
have eight. All these small creatures become pests when they bite, sting, or irritate you.
Although their venom can be quite painful, bee, wasp, and hornet stings rarely kill a survivor unless he is
allergic to that particular toxin. Even the most dangerous spiders rarely kill, and the effects of tick-borne
diseases are very slow-acting. However, in all cases, avoidance is the best defense. In environments
known to have spiders and scorpions, check your footgear and clothing every morning. Also check your
bedding and shelter for them. Use care when turning over rocks and logs. See Appendix D for examples
of dangerous insects and arachnids.

Scorpions
You find scorpions (Buthotus species) in deserts, jungles, and forests of tropical, subtropical, and warm
temperate areas of the world. They are mostly nocturnal in habit. You can find desert scorpions from
below sea level in Death Valley to elevations as high as 3,600 meters in the Andes. Typically brown or
black in moist areas, they may be yellow or light green in the desert. Their average size is about 2.5
centimeters. However, there are 20-centimeter giants in the jungles of Central America, New Guinea,
and southern Africa. Fatalities from scorpion stings are rare, but they can occur in children, the elderly,
Page 112 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

and ill persons. Scorpions resemble small lobsters with raised, jointed tails bearing a stinger in the tip.
Nature mimics the scorpions with whip scorpions or vinegar-roons. These are harmless and have a tail
like a wire or whip, rather than the jointed tail and stinger of true scorpions.

Spiders
You recognize the brown recluse or fiddleback spider of North America (Loxosceles reclusa) by a
prominent violin-shaped light spot on the back of its body. As its name suggests, this spider likes to hide
in dark places. Though rarely fatal, its bite causes excessive tissue degeneration around the wound and
can even lead to amputation of the digits if left untreated.
You find members of the widow family (Latrodectus species) worldwide, though the black widow of North
America is perhaps the most well-known. Found in warmer areas of the world, the widows are small,
dark spiders with often hourglass-shaped white, red, or orange spots on their abdomens.
Funnelwebs (Atrax species) are large, gray or brown Australian spiders. Chunky, with short legs, they
are able to move easily up and down the cone-shaped webs from which they get their name. The local
populace considers them deadly. Avoid them as they move about, usually at night, in search of prey.
Symptoms of their bite are similar to those of the widow's--severe pain accompanied by sweating and
shivering, weakness, and disabling episodes that can last a week.
Tarantulas are large, hairy spiders (Theraphosidae and Lycosa species) best known because they are
often sold in pet stores. There is one species in Europe, but most come from tropical America. Some
South American species do inject a dangerous toxin, but most simply produce a painful bite. Some
tarantulas can be as large as a dinner plate. They all have large fangs for capturing food such as birds,
mice, and lizards. If bitten by a tarantula, pain and bleeding are certain, and infection is likely.

Centipedes and Millipedes
Centipedes and millipedes are mostly small and harmless, although some tropical and desert species
may reach 25 centimeters. A few varieties of centipedes have a poisonous bite, but infection is the
greatest danger, as their sharp claws dig in and puncture the skin. To prevent skin punctures, brush
them off in the direction they are traveling, if you find them crawling on your skin.

Bees, Wasps, and Hornets
We are all familiar with bees, wasps, and hornets. They come in many varieties and have a wide
diversity of habits and habitats. You recognize bees by their hairy and usually thick body, while the
wasps, hornets, and yellow jackets have more slender, nearly hairless, bodies. Some bees, such as
honeybees, live in colonies. They may be either domesticated or living wild in caves or hollow trees. You
may find other bees, such as carpenter bees, in individual nest holes in wood, or in the ground, like
bumblebees. The main danger from bees is their barbed stinger located on their abdomens. When the
bee stings you, it rips its stinger out of its abdomen along with the venom sac, and the bee dies. Except
for killer bees, most bees tend to be more docile than wasps, hornets, and yellow jackets that have
smooth stingers and are capable of repeated attacks.
Avoidance is the best tactic for self-protection. Watch out for flowers or fruit where bees may be feeding.
Be careful of meat-eating yellow jackets when cleaning fish or game. The average person has a
relatively minor and temporary reaction to bee stings and recovers in a couple of hours when the pain
and headache go away. Those who are allergic to bee venom have severe reactions including
anaphylactic shock, coma, and death. If antihistamine medicine is not available and you cannot find a
substitute, an allergy sufferer in a survival situation is in grave danger.

Ticks
Ticks are common in the tropics and temperate regions. They are familiar to most of us. Ticks are small
round arachnids with eight legs and can have either a soft or hard body. Ticks require a blood host to
Page 113 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

survive and reproduce. This makes them dangerous because they spread diseases like Lyme disease,
Rocky Mountain spotted fever, encephalitis, and others that can ultimately be disabling or fatal. There is
little you can do to treat these diseases once contracted, but time is your ally since they are slow-acting
ailments. According to most authorities, it takes at least 6 hours of attachment to the host for the tick to
transmit the disease organisms. Thus, you have time to thoroughly inspect your body for their presence.
Beware of ticks when passing through the thick vegetation they cling to, when cleaning host animals for
food, and when gathering natural materials to construct a shelter. Always use insect repellents, if
possible.

LEECHES
Leeches are blood-sucking creatures with a wormlike appearance. You find them in the tropics and in
temperate zones. You will certainly encounter them when swimming in infested waters or making
expedient water crossings. You can find them when passing through swampy, tropical vegetation and
bogs. You can also find them while cleaning food animals, such as turtles, found in fresh water. Leeches
can crawl into small openings; therefore, avoid camping in their habitats when possible. Keep your
trousers tucked in your boots. Check yourself frequently for leeches. Swallowed or eaten, leeches can be
a great hazard. It is therefore essential to treat water from questionable sources by boiling or using
chemical water treatments. Survivors have developed severe infections from wounds inside the throat or
nose when sores from swallowed leeches became infected.

BATS
Despite the legends, bats (Desmodus species) are a relatively small hazard to the survivor. There are
many bat varieties worldwide, but you find the true vampire bats only in Central and South America. They
are small, agile fliers that land on their sleeping victims, mostly cows and horses, to lap a blood meal
after biting their victim. Their saliva contains an anticoagulant that keeps the blood slowly flowing while
they feed. Only a small percentage of these bats actually carry rabies; however, avoid any sick or injured
bat. They can carry other diseases and infections and will bite readily when handled. Taking shelter in a
cave occupied by bats, however, presents the much greater hazard of inhaling powdered bat dung, or
guano. Bat dung carries many organisms that can cause diseases. Eating thoroughly cooked flying foxes
or other bats presents no danger from rabies and other diseases, but again, the emphasis is on thorough
cooking.

POISONOUS SNAKES
There are no infallible rules for expedient identification of poisonous snakes in the field, because the
guidelines all require close observation or manipulation of the snake's body. The best strategy is to leave
all snakes alone. Where snakes are plentiful and poisonous species are present, the risk of their bites
negates their food value. Apply the following safety rules when traveling in areas where there are
poisonous snakes:
•
•
•

•
•
•
•
•

Walk carefully and watch where you step. Step onto logs rather than over them before looking
and moving on.
Look closely when picking fruit or moving around water.
Do not tease, molest, or harass snakes. Snakes cannot close their eyes. Therefore, you cannot
tell if they are asleep. Some snakes, such as mambas, cobras, and bushmasters, will attack
aggressively when cornered or guarding a nest.
Use sticks to turn logs and rocks.
Wear proper footgear, particularly at night.
Carefully check bedding, shelter, and clothing.
Be calm when you encounter serpents. Snakes cannot hear and you can occasionally surprise
them when they are sleeping or sunning. Normally, they will flee if given the opportunity.
Use extreme care if you must kill snakes for food or safety. Although it is not common, warm,
sleeping human bodies occasionally attract snakes.
Page 114 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

See Appendix E for detailed descriptions of the snakes listed below.

Snake-Free Areas
The polar regions are free of snakes due to their inhospitable environments. Other areas considered to
be free of poisonous snakes are New Zealand, Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Ireland, Polynesia,
and Hawaii.
POISONOUS SNAKES OF THE AMERICAS

•
•
•
•
•
•

American Copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix)
Bushmaster (Lachesis mutus)
Coral snake (Micrurus fulvius)
Cottonmouth (Agkistrodon piscivorus)
Fer-de-lance (Bothrops atrox)
Rattlesnake (Crotalus species)

POISONOUS SNAKES OF EUROPE
•
•

Common adder (Vipers berus)
Pallas' viper (Agkistrodon halys)

POISONOUS SNAKES OF AFRICA AND ASIA
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Boomslang (Dispholidus typus)
Cobra (Naja species)
Gaboon viper (Bitis gabonica)
Green tree pit viper (Trimeresurus gramineus)
Habu pit viper (Trimeresurus flavoviridis)
Krait (Bungarus caeruleus)
Malayan pit viper (Callaselasma rhodostoma)
Mamba (Dendraspis species)
Puff adder (Bitis arietans)
Rhinoceros viper (Bitis nasicornis)
Russell' s viper (Vipera russellii)
Sand viper (Cerastes vipera)
Saw-scaled viper (Echis carinatus)
Wagler's pit viper (Trimeresurus wagleri)

POISONOUS SNAKES OF AUSTRALASIA
•
•
•
•

Death adder (Acanthophis antarcticus)
Taipan (Oxyuranus scutellatus)
Tiger snake (Notechis scutatus)
Yellow-bellied sea snake (Pelamis platurus)

Page 115 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

DANGEROUS LIZARDS
The Gila monster and the Mexican beaded lizard are dangerous and poisonous lizards.

Gila Monster
The Gila monster (Heloderma suspectrum) of the American southwest, including Mexico, is a large lizard
with dark, highly textured skin marked by pinkish mottling. It averages 35 to 45 centimeters in length and
has a thick, stumpy tail. Unlikely to bite unless molested, it has a poisonous bite.

Mexican Beaded Lizard
The Mexican beaded lizard (Heloderma horridum) resembles its relative, the Gila monster. It has more
uniform spots rather than bands of color (the Gila monster). It also is poisonous and has a docile nature.
You find it from Mexico to Central America.

Komodo Dragon
This giant lizard (Varanus komodoensis) grows to more than 3 meters in length and can be dangerous if
you try to capture it. This Indonesian lizard can weigh more than 135 kilograms.

DANGERS IN RIVERS
Common sense will tell you to avoid confrontations with hippopotami, alligators, crocodiles, and other
large river creatures. There are, however, a few smaller river creatures with which you should be
cautious.

Electric Eel
Electric eels (Electrophorus electricus) may reach 2 meters in length and 20 centimeters in diameter.
Avoid them. They are capable of generating up to 500 volts of electricity in certain organs in their body.
They use this shock to stun prey and enemies. Normally, you find these eels in the Orinoco and Amazon
River systems in South America. They seem to prefer shallow waters that are more highly oxygenated
and provide more food. They are bulkier than our native eels. Their upper body is dark gray or black, with
a lighter-colored underbelly.

Piranha
Piranhas (Serrasalmo species) are another hazard of the Orinoco and Amazon River systems, as well as
the Paraguay River Basin, where they are native. These fish vary greatly in size and coloration, but
usually have a combination of orange undersides and dark tops. They have white, razor-sharp teeth that
are clearly visible. They may be as long as 50 centimeters. Use great care when crossing waters where
they live. Blood attracts them. They are most dangerous in shallow waters during the dry season.

Turtle
Be careful when handling and capturing large freshwater turtles, such as the snapping turtles and softshelled turtles of North America and the matamata and other turtles of South America. All of these turtles
will bite in self-defense and can amputate fingers and toes.

Platypus

Page 116 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

The platypus or duckbill (Ornithorhyncus anatinus) is the only member of its family and is easily
recognized. It has a long body covered with grayish, short hair, a tail like a beaver, and a bill like a duck.
Growing up to 60 centimeters in length, it may appear to be a good food source, but this egg-laying
mammal, the only one in the world, is very dangerous. The male has a poisonous spur on each hind foot
that can inflict intensely painful wounds. You find the platypus only in Australia, mainly along mud banks
on waterways.

DANGERS IN BAYS AND ESTUARIES
In areas where seas and rivers come together, there are dangers associated with both fresh and salt
water. In shallow salt waters, there are many creatures that can inflict pain and cause infection to
develop. Stepping on sea urchins, for example, can produce pain and infection. When moving about in
shallow water, wear some form of footgear and shuffle your feet along the bottom, rather than picking up
your feet and stepping.
Stingrays (Dasyatidae species) are a real hazard in shallow waters, especially tropical waters. The type
of bottom appears to be irrelevant. There is a great variance between species, but all have a sharp spike
in their tail that may be venomous and can cause extremely painful wounds if stepped on. All rays have a
typical shape that resembles a kite. You find them along the coasts of the Americas, Africa, and
Australasia.

SALTWATER DANGERS
There are several fish that you should not handle, touch, or contact. There are others that you should not
eat.

Fish Dangerous to Handle, Touch, or Contact
There are several fish you should not handle, touch, or contact that are identified below.
Shark
Sharks are the most feared animal in the sea. Usually, shark attacks cannot be avoided and are
considered accidents. You, as a survivor, should take every precaution to avoid any contact with sharks.
There are many shark species, but in general, dangerous sharks have wide mouths and visible teeth,
while relatively harmless ones have small mouths on the underside of their heads. However, any shark
can inflict painful and often fatal injuries, either through bites or through abrasions from their rough skin.
Rabbitfish
Rabbitfish or spinefoot (Siganidae species) occur mainly on coral reefs in the Indian and Pacific oceans.
They have very sharp, possibly venomous spines in their fins. Handle them with care, if at all. This fish,
like many others of the dangerous fish in this section, is considered edible by native peoples where the
fish are found, but deaths occur from careless handling. Seek other nonpoisonous fish to eat if at all
possible.
Tang
Tang or surgeonfish (Acanthuridae species) average 20 to 25 centimeters in length and often are
beautifully colored. They are called surgeonfish because of the scalpellike spines located in the tail. The
wounds inflicted by these spines can bring about death through infection, envenomation, and loss of
blood, which may incidentally attract sharks.
Toadfish
Toadfish (Batrachoididae species) occur in tropical waters off the Gulf Coast of the United States and
along both coasts of Central and South America. These dully colored fish average 18 to 25 centimeters
in length. They typically bury themselves in the sand to await fish and other prey. They have sharp, very
toxic spines along their backs.
Scorpion Fish
Poisonous scorpion fish or zebra fish (Scorpaenidae species) are mostly around reefs in the tropical
Indian and Pacific oceans and occasionally in the Mediterranean and Aegean seas. They average 30 to
75 centimeters in length. Their coloration is highly variable, from reddish brown to almost purple or
Page 117 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

brownish yellow. They have long, wavy fins and spines and their sting is intensively painful. Less
poisonous relatives live in the Atlantic Ocean.
Stonefish
Stonefish (Synanceja species) are in the Pacific and Indian oceans. They can inject a painful venom from
their dorsal spines when stepped on or handled carelessly. They are almost impossible to see because
of their lumpy shape and drab colors. They range in size up to 40 centimeters.
Weever Fish
Weever fish (Trachinidae species) average 30 centimeters long. They are hard to see as they lie buried
in the sand off the coasts of Europe, Africa, and the Mediterranean. Their color is usually a dull brown.
They have venomous spines on the back and gills.
See Appendix F for more details on these venomous fish.

Animals and Fish Poisonous to Eat
Survival manuals often mention that the livers of polar bears are toxic due to their high concentrations of
vitamin A. For this reason, we mention the chance of death after eating this organ. Another toxic meat is
the flesh of the hawksbill turtle. You recognize them by their down-turned bill and yellow polka dots on
their neck and front flippers. They weigh more than 275 kilograms and are unlikely to be captured.
Many fish living in reefs near shore, or in lagoons and estuaries, are poisonous to eat, though some are
only seasonally dangerous. The majority are tropical fish; however, be wary of eating any unidentifiable
fish wherever you are. Some predatory fish, such as barracuda and snapper, may become toxic if the
fish they feed on in shallow waters are poisonous. The most poisonous types appear to have parrotlike
beaks and hard shell-like skins with spines and often can inflate their bodies like balloons. However, at
certain times of the year, indigenous populations consider the puffer a delicacy.
Blowfish
Blowfish or puffer (Tetraodontidae species) are more tolerant of cold water. You find them along tropical
and temperate coasts worldwide, even in some of the rivers of Southeast Asia and Africa. Stout-bodied
and round, many of these fish have short spines and can inflate themselves into a ball when alarmed or
agitated. Their blood, liver, and gonads are so toxic that as little as 28 milligrams (1 ounce) can be fatal.
These fish vary in color and size, growing up to 75 centimeters in length.
Triggerfish
The triggerfish (Balistidae species) occur in great variety, mostly in tropical seas. They are deep-bodied
and compressed, resembling a seagoing pancake up to 60 centimeters in length, with large and sharp
dorsal spines. Avoid them all, as many have poisonous flesh.
Barracuda
Although most people avoid them because of their ferocity, they occasionally eat barracuda (Sphyraena
barracuda). These predators of mostly tropical seas can reach almost 1.5 meters in length and have
attacked humans without provocation. They occasionally carry the poison ciguatera in their flesh, making
them deadly if consumed.
See Appendix F for more details on toxic fish and toxic mollusks.

Other Dangerous Sea Creatures
The blue-ringed octopus, jellyfish, and the cone and auger shells are other dangerous sea creatures.
Blue-Ringed Octopus
Most octopi are excellent when properly prepared. However, the blueringed octopus (Hapalochlaena
lunulata) can inflict a deadly bite from its parrotlike beak. Fortunately, it is restricted to the Great Barrier
Reef of Australia and is very small. It is easily recognized by its grayish white overall color and iridescent
blue rings. Authorities warn that all tropical octopus species should be treated with caution, since many
have poisonous bites, although the flesh is edible.
Jellyfish
Jellyfish-related deaths are rare, but the sting they inflict is extremely painful. The Portuguese man-ofwar resembles a large pink or purple balloon floating on the sea. It has poisonous tentacles hanging up
to 12 meters below its body. The huge tentacles are actually colonies of stinging cells. Most known
Page 118 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

deaths from jellyfish are attributed to the man-of-war. Other jellyfish can inflict very painful stings as well.
Avoid the long tentacles of any jellyfish, even those washed up on the beach and apparently dead.
Cone Shell
The subtropical and tropical cone shells (Conidae species) have a venomous harpoonlike barb. All are
cone-shaped and have a fine netlike pattern on the shell. A membrane may possibly obscure this
coloration. There are some very poisonous cone shells, even some lethal ones in the Indian and Pacific
oceans. Avoid any shell shaped like an ice cream cone.
Auger Shell
The auger shell or terebra (Terebridae species) are much longer and thinner than the cone shells, but
can be nearly as deadly as the cone shells. They are found in temperate and tropical seas. Those in the
Indian and Pacific oceans have a more toxic venom in their stinging barb. Do not eat these snails, as
their flesh may be poisonous.

Page 119 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

CHAPTER 12 - FIELD-EXPEDIENT WEAPONS, TOOLS,
AND EQUIPMENT

As a soldier you know the importance of proper care and use of your weapons, tools, and
equipment. This is especially true of your knife. You must always keep it sharp and ready
to use. A knife is your most valuable tool in a survival situation. Imagine being in a survival
situation without any weapons, tools, or equipment except your knife. It could happen!
You might even be without a knife. You would probably feel helpless, but with the proper
knowledge and skills, you can easily improvise needed items.
In survival situations, you may have to fashion any number and type of field-expedient
tools and equipment to survive. Examples of tools and equipment that could make your
life much easier are ropes, rucksacks, clothes, nets, and so on.
Weapons serve a dual purpose. You use them to obtain and prepare food and to provide
self-defense. A weapon can also give you a feeling of security and provide you with the
ability to hunt on the move.

CLUBS
You hold clubs, you do not throw them. As a field-expedient weapon, the club does not protect you from
enemy soldiers. It can, however, extend your area of defense beyond your fingertips. It also serves to
increase the force of a blow without injuring yourself. There are three basic types of clubs. They are the
simple, weighted, and sling club.

Simple Club
A simple club is a staff or branch. It must be short enough for you to swing easily, but long enough and
strong enough for you to damage whatever you hit. Its diameter should fit comfortably in your palm, but it
should not be so thin as to allow the club to break easily upon impact. A straight-grained hardwood is
best if you can find it.

Weighted Club
A weighted club is any simple club with a weight on one end. The weight may be a natural weight, such
as a knot on the wood, or something added, such as a stone lashed to the club.
To make a weighted club, first find a stone that has a shape that will allow you to lash it securely to the
club. A stone with a slight hourglass shape works well. If you cannot find a suitably shaped stone, you
must fashion a groove or channel into the stone by a technique known as pecking. By repeatedly rapping
the club stone with a smaller hard stone, you can get the desired shape.
Page 120 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Next, find a piece of wood that is the right length for you. A straight-grained hardwood is best. The length
of the wood should feel comfortable in relation to the weight of the stone. Finally, lash the stone to the
handle.
There are three techniques for lashing the stone to the handle: split handle, forked branch, and wrapped
handle. The technique you use will depend on the type of handle you choose. See Figure 12-1.

Sling Club
A sling club is another type of weighted club. A weight hangs 8 to 10 centimeters from the handle by a
strong, flexible lashing (Figure 12-2). This type of club both extends the user's reach and multiplies the
force of the blow.

Page 121 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

EDGED WEAPONS
Knives, spear blades, and arrow points fall under the category of edged weapons. The following
paragraphs will discuss the making of such weapons.

Knives
A knife has three basic functions. It can puncture, slash or chop, and cut. A knife is also an invaluable
tool used to construct other survival items. You may find yourself without a knife or you may need
another type knife or a spear. To improvise you can use stone, bone, wood, or metal to make a knife or
spear blade.
Stone
To make a stone knife, you will need a sharp-edged piece of stone, a chipping tool, and a flaking tool. A
chipping tool is a light, blunt-edged tool used to break off small pieces of stone. A flaking tool is a pointed
tool used to break off thin, flattened pieces of stone. You can make a chipping tool from wood, bone, or
metal, and a flaking tool from bone, antler tines, or soft iron (Figure 12-3).

Page 122 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Start making the knife by roughing out the desired shape on your sharp piece of stone, using the
chipping tool. Try to make the knife fairly thin. Then, using the flaking tool, press it against the edges.
This action will cause flakes to come off the opposite side of the edge, leaving a razor sharp edge. Use
the flaking tool along the entire length of the edge you need to sharpen. Eventually, you will have a very
sharp cutting edge that you can use as a knife.
Lash the blade to some type of hilt (Figure 12-3).
Note: Stone will make an excellent puncturing tool and a good chopping tool but will not
hold a fine edge. Some stones such as chert or flint can have very fine edges.
Bone
You can also use bone as an effective field-expedient edged weapon. First, you will need to select a
suitable bone. The larger bones, such as the leg bone of a deer or another medium-sized animal, are
best. Lay the bone upon another hard object. Shatter the bone by hitting it with a heavy object, such as a
rock. From the pieces, select a suitable pointed splinter. You can further shape and sharpen this splinter
by rubbing it on a rough-surfaced rock. If the piece is too small to handle, you can still use it by adding a
handle to it. Select a suitable piece of hardwood for a handle and lash the bone splinter securely to it.
Note: Use the bone knife only to puncture. It will not hold an edge and it may flake or
break if used differently.
Page 123 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Wood
You can make field-expedient edged weapons from wood. Use these only to puncture. Bamboo is the
only wood that will hold a suitable edge. To make a knife using wood, first select a straight-grained piece
of hardwood that is about 30 centimeters long and 2.5 centimeters in diameter. Fashion the blade about
15 centimeters long. Shave it down to a point. Use only the straight-grained portions of the wood. Do not
use the core or pith, as it would make a weak point.
Harden the point by a process known as fire hardening. If a fire is possible, dry the blade portion over the
fire slowly until lightly charred. The drier the wood, the harder the point. After lightly charring the blade
portion, sharpen it on a coarse stone. If using bamboo and after fashioning the blade, remove any other
wood to make the blade thinner from the inside portion of the bamboo. Removal is done this way
because bamboo's hardest part is its outer layer. Keep as much of this layer as possible to ensure the
hardest blade possible. When charring bamboo over a fire, char only the inside wood; do not char the
outside.
Metal
Metal is the best material to make field-expedient edged weapons. Metal, when properly designed, can
fulfill a knife's three uses--puncture, slice or chop, and cut. First, select a suitable piece of metal, one that
most resembles the desired end product. Depending on the size and original shape, you can obtain a
point and cutting edge by rubbing the metal on a rough-surfaced stone. If the metal is soft enough, you
can hammer out one edge while the metal is cold. Use a suitable flat, hard surface as an anvil and a
smaller, harder object of stone or metal as a hammer to hammer out the edge. Make a knife handle from
wood, bone, or other material that will protect your hand.
Other Materials
You can use other materials to produce edged weapons. Glass is a good alternative to an edged
weapon or tool, if no other material is available. Obtain a suitable piece in the same manner as described
for bone. Glass has a natural edge but is less durable for heavy work. You can also sharpen plastic--if it
is thick enough or hard enough--into a durable point for puncturing.

Spear Blades
To make spears, use the same procedures to make the blade that you used to make a knife blade. Then
select a shaft (a straight sapling) 1.2 to 1.5 meters long. The length should allow you to handle the spear
easily and effectively. Attach the spear blade to the shaft using lashing. The preferred method is to split
the handle, insert the blade, then wrap or lash it tightly. You can use other materials without adding a
blade. Select a 1.2-to 1.5-meter long straight hardwood shaft and shave one end to a point. If possible,
fire harden the point. Bamboo also makes an excellent spear. Select a piece 1.2 to 1.5 meters long.
Starting 8 to 10 centimeters back from the end used as the point, shave down the end at a 45-degree
angle (Figure 12-4). Remember, to sharpen the edges, shave only the inner portion.

Arrow Points

Page 124 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

To make an arrow point, use the same procedures for making a stone knife blade. Chert, flint, and shelltype stones are best for arrow points. You can fashion bone like stone--by flaking. You can make an
efficient arrow point using broken glass.

OTHER EXPEDIENT WEAPONS
You can make other field-expedient weapons such as the throwing stick, archery equipment, and the
bola.

Throwing Stick
The throwing stick, commonly known as the rabbit stick, is very effective against small game (squirrels,
chipmunks, and rabbits). The rabbit stick itself is a blunt stick, naturally curved at about a 45-degree
angle. Select a stick with the desired angle from heavy hardwood such as oak. Shave off two opposite
sides so that the stick is flat like a boomerang (Figure 12-5). You must practice the throwing technique
for accuracy and speed. First, align the target by extending the nonthrowing arm in line with the mid to
lower section of the target. Slowly and repeatedly raise the throwing arm up and back until the throwing
stick crosses the back at about a 45-degree angle or is in line with the nonthrowing hip. Bring the
throwing arm forward until it is just slightly above and parallel to the nonthrowing arm. This will be the
throwing stick's release point. Practice slowly and repeatedly to attain accuracy.

Archery Equipment
You can make a bow and arrow (Figure 12-6) from materials available in your survival area. To make a
bow, use the procedure described under Killing Devices in Chapter 8.

Page 125 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

While it may be relatively simple to make a bow and arrow, it is not easy to use one. You must practice
using it a long time to be reasonably sure that you will hit your target. Also, a field-expedient bow will not
last very long before you have to make a new one. For the time and effort involved, you may well decide
to use another type of field-expedient weapon.

Bola
The bola is another field-expedient weapon that is easy to make (Figure 12-7). It is especially effective
for capturing running game or low-flying fowl in a flock. To use the bola, hold it by the center knot and
twirl it above your head. Release the knot so that the bola flies toward your target. When you release the
bola, the weighted cords will separate. These cords will wrap around and immobilize the fowl or animal
that you hit.

Page 126 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

LASHING AND CORDAGE
Many materials are strong enough for use as lashing and cordage. A number of natural and man-made
materials are available in a survival situation. For example, you can make a cotton web belt much more
useful by unraveling it. You can then use the string for other purposes (fishing line, thread for sewing,
and lashing).

Natural Cordage Selection
Before making cordage, there are a few simple tests you can do to determine you material's suitability.
First, pull on a length of the material to test for strength. Next, twist it between your fingers and roll the
fibers together. If it withstands this handling and does not snap apart, tie an overhand knot with the fibers
and gently tighten. If the knot does not break, the material is usable. Figure 12-8 shows various methods
of making cordage.

Lashing Material
The best natural material for lashing small objects is sinew. You can make sinew from the tendons of
large game, such as deer. Remove the tendons from the game and dry them completely. Smash the
dried tendons so that they separate into fibers. Moisten the fibers and twist them into a continuous
strand. If you need stronger lashing material, you can braid the strands. When you use sinew for small
lashings, you do not need knots as the moistened sinew is sticky and it hardens when dry.
You can shred and braid plant fibers from the inner bark of some trees to make cord. You can use the
linden, elm, hickory, white oak, mulberry, chestnut, and red and white cedar trees. After you make the
cord, test it to be sure it is strong enough for your purpose. You can make these materials stronger by
braiding several strands together.
You can use rawhide for larger lashing jobs. Make rawhide from the skins of medium or large game.
After skinning the animal, remove any excess fat and any pieces of meat from the skin. Dry the skin
completely. You do not need to stretch it as long as there are no folds to trap moisture. You do not have
to remove the hair from the skin. Cut the skin while it is dry. Make cuts about 6 millimeters wide. Start
from the center of the hide and make one continuous circular cut, working clockwise to the hide's outer
edge. Soak the rawhide for 2 to 4 hours or until it is soft. Use it wet, stretching it as much as possible
while applying it. It will be strong and durable when it dries.

RUCKSACK CONSTRUCTION
The materials for constructing a rucksack or pack are almost limitless. You can use wood, bamboo, rope,
plant fiber, clothing, animal skins, canvas, and many other materials to make a pack.
There are several construction techniques for rucksacks. Many are very elaborate, but those that are
simple and easy are often the most readily made in a survival situation.
Page 127 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Horseshoe Pack
This pack is simple to make and use and relatively comfortable to carry over one shoulder. Lay available
square-shaped material, such as poncho, blanket, or canvas, flat on the ground. Lay items on one edge
of the material. Pad the hard items. Roll the material (with the items) toward the opposite edge and tie
both ends securely. Add extra ties along the length of the bundle. You can drape the pack over one
shoulder with a line connecting the two ends (Figure 12-9).

Square Pack
This pack is easy to construct if rope or cordage is available. Otherwise, you must first make cordage. To
make this pack, construct a square frame from bamboo, limbs, or sticks. Size will vary for each person
and the amount of equipment carried (Figure 12-10).

Page 128 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

CLOTHING AND INSULATION
You can use many materials for clothing and insulation. Both man-made materials, such as parachutes,
and natural materials, such as skins and plant materials, are available and offer significant protection.

Parachute Assembly
Consider the entire parachute assembly as a resource. Use every piece of material and hardware, to
include the canopy, suspension lines, connector snaps, and parachute harness. Before disassembling
the parachute, consider all of your survival requirements and plan to use different portions of the
parachute accordingly. For example, consider shelter requirements, need for a rucksack, and so on, in
addition to clothing or insulation needs.

Animal Skins
The selection of animal skins in a survival situation will most often be limited to what you manage to trap
or hunt. However, if there is an abundance of wildlife, select the hides of larger animals with heavier
coats and large fat content. Do not use the skins of infected or diseased animals if at all possible. Since
they live in the wild, animals are carriers of pests such as ticks, lice, and fleas. Because of these pests,
use water to thoroughly clean any skin obtained from any animal. If water is not available, at least shake
out the skin thoroughly. As with rawhide, lay out the skin, and remove all fat and meat. Dry the skin
completely. Use the hind quarter joint areas to make shoes and mittens or socks. Wear the hide with the
fur to the inside for its insulating factor.

Plant Fibers
Several plants are sources of insulation from cold. Cattail is a marshland plant found along lakes, ponds,
and the backwaters of rivers. The fuzz on the tops of the stalks forms dead air spaces and makes a good
down-like insulation when placed between two pieces of material. Milkweed has pollenlike seeds that act
as good insulation. The husk fibers from coconuts are very good for weaving ropes and, when dried,
make excellent tinder and insulation.

COOKING AND EATING UTENSILS
Many materials may be used to make equipment for the cooking, eating, and storing of food.

Bowls
Use wood, bone, horn, bark, or other similar material to make bowls. To make wooden bowls, use a
hollowed out piece of wood that will hold your food and enough water to cook it in. Hang the wooden
container over the fire and add hot rocks to the water and food. Remove the rocks as they cool and add
more hot rocks until your food is cooked.
CAUTION
Do not use rocks with air pockets, such as limestone and sandstone. They may explode while heating in
the fire.
You can also use this method with containers made of bark or leaves. However, these containers will
burn above the waterline unless you keep them moist or keep the fire low.
A section of bamboo works very well, if you cut out a section between two sealed joints (Figure 12-11).

Page 129 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

CAUTION
A sealed section of bamboo will explode if heated because of trapped air and water in the section.

Forks, Knives, and Spoons
Carve forks, knives, and spoons from nonresinous woods so that you do not get a wood resin aftertaste
or do not taint the food. Nonresinous woods include oak, birch, and other hardwood trees.
Note: Do not use those trees that secrete a syrup or resinlike liquid on the bark or when
cut.

Pots
You can make pots from turtle shells or wood. As described with bowls, using hot rocks in a hollowed out
piece of wood is very effective. Bamboo is the best wood for making cooking containers.
To use turtle shells, first thoroughly boil the upper portion of the shell. Then use it to heat food and water
over a flame (Figure 12-11).

Water Bottles
Make water bottles from the stomachs of larger animals. Thoroughly flush the stomach out with water,
then tie off the bottom. Leave the top open, with some means of fastening it closed.

Page 130 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

CHAPTER 13 - DESERT SURVIVAL

To survive and evade in arid or desert areas, you must understand and prepare for the
environment you will face. You must determine your equipment needs, the tactics you will
use, and how the environment will affect you and your tactics. Your survival will depend
upon your knowledge of the terrain, basic climatic elements, your ability to cope with these
elements, and your will to survive.

TERRAIN
Most arid areas have several types of terrain. The five basic desert terrain types are-•
•
•
•
•

Mountainous (High Altitude).
Rocky plateau.
Sand dunes.
Salt marshes.
Broken, dissected terrain ("gebel" or "wadi").

Desert terrain makes movement difficult and demanding. Land navigation will be extremely difficult as
there may be very few landmarks. Cover and concealment may be very limited; therefore, the threat of
exposure to the enemy remains constant.

Mountain Deserts
Scattered ranges or areas of barren hills or mountains separated by dry, flat basins characterize
mountain deserts. High ground may rise gradually or abruptly from flat areas to several thousand meters
above sea level. Most of the infrequent rainfall occurs on high ground and runs off rapidly in the form of
flash floods. These floodwaters erode deep gullies and ravines and deposit sand and gravel around the
edges of the basins. Water rapidly evaporates, leaving the land as barren as before, although there may
be short-lived vegetation. If enough water enters the basin to compensate for the rate of evaporation,
shallow lakes may develop, such as the Great Salt Lake in Utah, or the Dead Sea. Most of these lakes
have a high salt content.

Rocky Plateau Deserts
Rocky plateau deserts have relatively slight relief interspersed with extensive flat areas with quantities of
solid or broken rock at or near the surface. There may be steep-walled, eroded valleys, known as wadis
in the Middle East and arroyos or canyons in the United States and Mexico. Although their flat bottoms
may be superficially attractive as assembly areas, the narrower valleys can be extremely dangerous to
men and material due to flash flooding after rains. The Golan Heights is an example of a rocky plateau
desert.
Page 131 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Sandy or Dune Deserts
Sandy or dune deserts are extensive flat areas covered with sand or gravel. "Flat" is a relative term, as
some areas may contain sand dunes that are over 300 meters high and 16 to 24 kilometers long.
Trafficability in such terrain will depend on the windward or leeward slope of the dunes and the texture of
the sand. Other areas, however, may be flat for 3,000 meters and more. Plant life may vary from none to
scrub over 2 meters high. Examples of this type of desert include the edges of the Sahara, the empty
quarter of the Arabian Desert, areas of California and New Mexico, and the Kalahari in South Africa.

Salt Marshes
Salt marshes are flat, desolate areas, sometimes studded with clumps of grass but devoid of other
vegetation. They occur in arid areas where rainwater has collected, evaporated, and left large deposits of
alkali salts and water with a high salt concentration. The water is so salty it is undrinkable. A crust that
may be 2.5 to 30 centimeters thick forms over the saltwater.
In arid areas there are salt marshes hundreds of kilometers square. These areas usually support many
insects, most of which bite. Avoid salt marshes. This type of terrain is highly corrosive to boots, clothing,
and skin. A good example is the Shat-el-Arab waterway along the Iran-Iraq border.

Broken Terrain
All arid areas contain broken or highly dissected terrain. Rainstorms that erode soft sand and carve out
canyons form this terrain. A wadi may range from 3 meters wide and 2 meters deep to several hundred
meters wide and deep. The direction it takes varies as much as its width and depth. It twists and turns
and forms a mazelike pattern. A wadi will give you good cover and concealment, but do not try to move
through it because it is very difficult terrain to negotiate.

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
Surviving and evading the enemy in an arid area depends on what you know and how prepared you are
for the environmental conditions you will face. Determine what equipment you will need, the tactics you
will use, and the environment's impact on them and you.
In a desert area there are seven environmental factors that you must consider-•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Low rainfall.
Intense sunlight and heat.
Wide temperature range.
Sparse vegetation.
High mineral content near ground surface.
Sandstorms.
Mirages.

Low Rainfall
Low rainfall is the most obvious environmental factor in an arid area. Some desert areas receive less
than 10 centimeters of rain annually, and this rain comes in brief torrents that quickly run off the ground
surface. You cannot survive long without water in high desert temperatures. In a desert survival situation,
you must first consider "How much water do I have?" and "Where are other water sources?"

Intense Sunlight and Heat
Intense sunlight and heat are present in all arid areas. Air temperature can rise as high as 60 degrees C
(140 degrees F) during the day. Heat gain results from direct sunlight, hot blowing winds, reflective heat
Page 132 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

(the sun's rays bouncing off the sand), and conductive heat from direct contact with the desert sand and
rock (Figure 13-1).

The temperature of desert sand and rock averages 16 to 22 degrees C (30 to 40 degrees F) more than
that of the air. For instance, when the air temperature is 43 degrees C (110 degrees F), the sand
temperature may be 60 degrees C (140 degrees F).
Intense sunlight and heat increase the body's need for water. To conserve your body fluids and energy,
you will need a shelter to reduce your exposure to the heat of the day. Travel at night to lessen your use
of water.
Radios and sensitive items of equipment exposed to direct intense sunlight will malfunction.

Wide Temperature Range
Temperatures in arid areas may get as high as 55 degrees C during the day and as low as 10 degrees C
during the night. The drop in temperature at night occurs rapidly and will chill a person who lacks warm
clothing and is unable to move about. The cool evenings and nights are the best times to work or travel.
If your plan is to rest at night, you will find a wool sweater, long underwear, and a wool stocking cap
extremely helpful.

Sparse Vegetation
Vegetation is sparse in arid areas. You will therefore have trouble finding shelter and camouflaging your
movements. During daylight hours large areas of terrain are visible and easily controlled by a small
opposing force.
Page 133 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

If traveling in hostile territory, follow the principles of desert camouflage-•
•
•

Hide or seek shelter in dry washes (wadis) with thicker growths of vegetation and cover from
oblique observation.
Use the shadows cast from brush, rocks, or outcropping. The temperature in shaded areas will be
11 to 17 degrees C cooler than the air temperature.
Cover objects that will reflect the light from the sun.

Before moving, survey the area for sites that provide cover and concealment. You will have trouble
estimating distance. The emptiness of desert terrain causes most people to underestimate distance by a
factor of three: What appears to be 1 kilometer away is really 3 kilometers away.

High Mineral Content
All arid regions have areas where the surface soil has a high mineral content (borax, salt, alkali, and
lime). Material in contact with this soil wears out quickly, and water in these areas is extremely hard and
undrinkable. Wetting your uniform in such water to cool off may cause a skin rash. The Great Salt Lake
area in Utah is an example of this type of mineral-laden water and soil. There is little or no plant life;
there-fore, shelter is hard to find. Avoid these areas if possible.

Sandstorms
Sandstorms (sand-laden winds) occur frequently in most deserts. The "Seistan" desert wind in Iran and
Afghanistan blows constantly for up to 120 days. Within Saudi Arabia, winds average 3.2 to 4.8
kilometers per hour (kph) and can reach 112 to 128 kph in early afternoon. Expect major sandstorms and
dust storms at least once a week.
The greatest danger is getting lost in a swirling wall of sand. Wear goggles and cover your mouth and
nose with cloth. If natural shelter is unavailable, mark your direction of travel, lie down, and sit out the
storm.
Dust and wind-blown sand interfere with radio transmissions. Therefore, be ready to use other means for
signaling, such as pyrotechnics, signal mirrors, or marker panels, if available.

Mirages
Mirages are optical phenomena caused by the refraction of light through heated air rising from a sandy or
stony surface. They occur in the interior of the desert about 10 kilometers from the coast. They make
objects that are 1.5 kilometers or more away appear to move.
This mirage effect makes it difficult for you to identify an object from a distance. It also blurs distant range
contours so much that you feel surrounded by a sheet of water from which elevations stand out as
"islands."
The mirage effect makes it hard for a person to identify targets, estimate range, and see objects clearly.
However, if you can get to high ground (3 meters or more above the desert floor), you can get above the
superheated air close to the ground and overcome the mirage effect. Mirages make land navigation
difficult because they obscure natural features. You can survey the area at dawn, dusk, or by moonlight
when there is little likelihood of mirage.
Light levels in desert areas are more intense than in other geographic areas. Moonlit nights are usually
crystal clear, winds die down, haze and glare disappear, and visibility is excellent. You can see lights, red
flash-lights, and blackout lights at great distances. Sound carries very far.
Conversely, during nights with little moonlight, visibility is extremely poor. Traveling is extremely
hazardous. You must avoid getting lost, falling into ravines, or stumbling into enemy positions. Movement
during such a night is practical only if you have a compass and have spent the day in a shelter, resting,
observing and memorizing the terrain, and selecting your route.
Page 134 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

NEED FOR WATER
The subject of man and water in the desert has generated considerable interest and confusion since the
early days of World War II when the U. S. Army was preparing to fight in North Africa. At one time the U.
S. Army thought it could condition men to do with less water by progressively reducing their water
supplies during training. They called it water discipline. It caused hundreds of heat casualties.
A key factor in desert survival is understanding the relationship between physical activity, air
temperature, and water consumption. The body requires a certain amount of water for a certain level of
activity at a certain temperature. For example, a person performing hard work in the sun at 43 degrees C
requires 19 liters of water daily. Lack of the required amount of water causes a rapid decline in an
individual's ability to make decisions and to perform tasks efficiently.
Your body's normal temperature is 36.9 degrees C (98.6 degrees F). Your body gets rid of excess heat
(cools off) by sweating. The warmer your body becomes--whether caused by work, exercise, or air
temperature--the more you sweat. The more you sweat, the more moisture you lose. Sweating is the
principal cause of water loss. If a person stops sweating during periods of high air temperature and
heavy work or exercise, he will quickly develop heat stroke. This is an emergency that requires
immediate medical attention.
Figure 13-2 shows daily water requirements for various levels of work. Understanding how the air
temperature and your physical activity affect your water requirements allows you to take measures to get
the most from your water supply. These measures are-•
•
•
•

•

Find shade! Get out of the sun!
Place something between you and the hot ground.
Limit your movements!
Conserve your sweat. Wear your complete uniform to include T-shirt. Roll the sleeves down,
cover your head, and protect your neck with a scarf or similar item. These steps will protect your
body from hot-blowing winds and the direct rays of the sun. Your clothing will absorb your sweat,
keeping it against your skin so that you gain its full cooling effect. By staying in the shade quietly,
fully clothed, not talking, keeping your mouth closed, and breathing through your nose, your water
requirement for survival drops dramatically.
If water is scarce, do not eat. Food requires water for digestion; therefore, eating food will use
water that you need for cooling.

Page 135 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Thirst is not a reliable guide for your need for water. A person who uses thirst as a guide will drink only
two-thirds of his daily water requirement. To prevent this "voluntary" dehydration, use the following guide:
•
•

At temperatures below 38 degrees C, drink 0.5 liter of water every hour.
At temperatures above 38 degrees C, drink 1 liter of water every hour.

Drinking water at regular intervals helps your body remain cool and decreases sweating. Even when your
water supply is low, sipping water constantly will keep your body cooler and reduce water loss through
sweating. Conserve your fluids by reducing activity during the heat of day. Do not ration your water! If
you try to ration water, you stand a good chance of becoming a heat casualty.

HEAT CASUALTIES
Your chances of becoming a heat casualty as a survivor are great, due to injury, stress, and lack of
critical items of equipment. Following are the major types of heat casualties and their treatment when
little water and no medical help are available.
Page 136 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Heat Cramps
The loss of salt due to excessive sweating causes heat cramps. Symptoms are moderate to severe
muscle cramps in legs, arms, or abdomen. These symptoms may start as a mild muscular discomfort.
You should now stop all activity, get in the shade, and drink water. If you fail to recognize the early
symptoms and continue your physical activity, you will have severe muscle cramps and pain. Treat as for
heat exhaustion, below.

Heat Exhaustion
A large loss of body water and salt causes heat exhaustion. Symptoms are headache, mental confusion,
irritability, excessive sweating, weakness, dizziness, cramps, and pale, moist, cold (clammy) skin.
Immediately get the patient under shade. Make him lie on a stretcher or similar item about 45
centimeters off the ground. Loosen his clothing. Sprinkle him with water and fan him. Have him drink
small amounts of water every 3 minutes. Ensure he stays quiet and rests.

Heat Stroke
A severe heat injury caused by extreme loss of water and salt and the body's inability to cool itself. The
patient may die if not cooled immediately. Symptoms are the lack of sweat, hot and dry skin, headache,
dizziness, fast pulse, nausea and vomiting, and mental confusion leading to unconsciousness.
Immediately get the person to shade. Lay him on a stretcher or similar item about 45 centimeters off the
ground. Loosen his clothing. Pour water on him (it does not matter if the water is polluted or brackish)
and fan him. Massage his arms, legs, and body. If he regains consciousness, let him drink small
amounts of water every 3 minutes.

PRECAUTIONS
In a desert survival and evasion situation, it is unlikely that you will have a medic or medical supplies with
you to treat heat injuries. Therefore, take extra care to avoid heat injuries. Rest during the day. Work
during the cool evenings and nights. Use a buddy system to watch for heat injury, and observe the
following guidelines:
•
•
•
•
•
•

Make sure you tell someone where you are going and when you will return.
Watch for signs of heat injury. If someone complains of tiredness or wanders away from the
group, he may be a heat casualty.
Drink water at least once an hour.
Get in the shade when resting; do not lie directly on the ground.
Do not take off your shirt and work during the day.
Check the color of your urine. A light color means you are drinking enough water, a dark color
means you need to drink more.

DESERT HAZARDS
There are several hazards unique to desert survival. These include insects, snakes, thorned plants and
cacti, contaminated water, sunburn, eye irritation, and climatic stress.
Insects of almost every type abound in the desert. Man, as a source of water and food, attracts lice,
mites, wasps, and flies. They are extremely unpleasant and may carry diseases. Old buildings, ruins, and
caves are favorite habitats of spiders, scorpions, centipedes, lice, and mites. These areas provide
protection from the elements and also attract other wild-life. Therefore, take extra care when staying in
these areas. Wear gloves at all times in the desert. Do not place your hands anywhere without first
looking to see what is there. Visually inspect an area before sitting or lying down. When you get up,
shake out and inspect your boots and clothing. All desert areas have snakes. They inhabit ruins, native
villages, garbage dumps, caves, and natural rock outcropping that offer shade. Never go barefoot or walk
through these areas without carefully inspecting them for snakes. Pay attention to where you place your
Page 137 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

feet and hands. Most snakebites result from stepping on or handling snakes. Avoid them. Once you see
a snake, give it a wide berth.

Page 138 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

CHAPTER 14 - TROPICAL SURVIVAL

Most people think of the tropics as a huge and forbidding tropical rain forest through which
every step taken must be hacked out, and where every inch of the way is crawling with
danger. Actually, over half of the land in the tropics is cultivated in some way.
A knowledge of field skills, the ability to improvise, and the application of the principles of
survival will increase the prospects of survival. Do not be afraid of being alone in the
jungle; fear will lead to panic. Panic will lead to exhaustion and decrease your chance of
survival.
Everything in the jungle thrives, including disease germs and parasites that breed at an
alarming rate. Nature will provide water, food, and plenty of materials to build shelters.
Indigenous peoples have lived for millennia by hunting and gathering. However, it will take
an outsider some time to get used to the conditions and the nonstop activity of tropical
survival.

TROPICAL WEATHER
High temperatures, heavy rainfall, and oppressive humidity characterize equatorial and subtropical
regions, except at high altitudes. At low altitudes, temperature variation is seldom less than 10 degrees C
and is often more than 35 degrees C. At altitudes over 1,500 meters, ice often forms at night. The rain
has a cooling effect, but when it stops, the temperature soars.
Rainfall is heavy, often with thunder and lightning. Sudden rain beats on the tree canopy, turning trickles
into raging torrents and causing rivers to rise. Just as suddenly, the rain stops. Violent storms may occur,
usually toward the end of the summer months.
Hurricanes, cyclones, and typhoons develop over the sea and rush inland, causing tidal waves and
devastation ashore. In choosing campsites, make sure you are above any potential flooding. Prevailing
winds vary between winter and summer. The dry season has rain once a day and the monsoon has
continuous rain. In Southeast Asia, winds from the Indian Ocean bring the monsoon, but it is dry when
the wind blows from the landmass of China.
Tropical day and night are of equal length. Darkness falls quickly and daybreak is just as sudden.

JUNGLE TYPES
There is no standard jungle. The tropical area may be any of the following:
•
•
•

Rain forests.
Secondary jungles.
Semievergreen seasonal and monsoon forests.
Page 139 of 233

FM 21-76

•
•
•
•

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Scrub and thorn forests.
Savannas.
Saltwater swamps.
Freshwater swamps.

Tropical Rain Forests
The climate varies little in rain forests. You find these forests across the equator in the Amazon and
Congo basins, parts of Indonesia, and several Pacific islands. Up to 3.5 meters of rain fall evenly
throughout the year. Temperatures range from about 32 degrees C in the day to 21 degrees C at night.
There are five layers of vegetation in this jungle (Figure 14-1). Where untouched by man, jungle trees
rise from buttress roots to heights of 60 meters. Below them, smaller trees produce a canopy so thick
that little light reaches the jungle floor. Seedlings struggle beneath them to reach light, and masses of
vines and lianas twine up to the sun. Ferns, mosses, and herbaceous plants push through a thick carpet
of leaves, and a great variety of fungi grow on leaves and fallen tree trunks.

Because of the lack of light on the jungle floor, there is little undergrowth to hamper movement, but
dense growth limits visibility to about 50 meters. You can easily lose your sense of direction in this
jungle, and it is extremely hard for aircraft to see you.

Secondary Jungles
Secondary jungle is very similar to rain forest. Prolific growth, where sunlight penetrates to the jungle
floor, typifies this type of forest. Such growth happens mainly along river banks, on jungle fringes, and
where man has cleared rain forest. When abandoned, tangled masses of vegetation quickly reclaim
these cultivated areas. You can often find cultivated food plants among this vegetation.

Semievergreen Seasonal and Monsoon Forests
The characteristics of the American and African semievergreen seasonal forests correspond with those
of the Asian monsoon forests. These characteristics are-•
•
•

Their trees fall into two stories of tree strata. Those in the upper story average 18 to 24 meters;
those in the lower story average 7 to 13 meters.
The diameter of the trees averages 0.5 meter.
Their leaves fall during a seasonal drought.

Except for the sago, nipa, and coconut palms, the same edible plants grow in these areas as in the
tropical rain forests.
Page 140 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

You find these forests in portions of Columbia and Venezuela and the Amazon basin in South America;
in portions of southeast coastal Kenya, Tanzania, and Mozambique in Africa; in Northeastern India,
much of Burma, Thailand, Indochina, Java, and parts of other Indonesian islands in Asia.

Tropical Scrub and Thorn Forests
The chief characteristics of tropical scrub and thorn forests are-•
•
•
•
•

There is a definite dry season.
Trees are leafless during the dry season.
The ground is bare except for a few tufted plants in bunches; grasses are uncommon.
Plants with thorns predominate.
Fires occur frequently.

You find tropical scrub and thorn forests on the west coast of Mexico, Yucatan peninsula, Venezuela,
Brazil; on the northwest coast and central parts of Africa; and in Asia, in Turkestan and India.
Within the tropical scrub and thorn forest areas, you will find it hard to obtain food plants during the dry
season. During the rainy season, plants are considerably more abundant.

Tropical Savannas
General characteristics of the savanna are-•
•
•
•

It is found within the tropical zones in South America and Africa.
It looks like a broad, grassy meadow, with trees spaced at wide intervals.
It frequently has red soil.
It grows scattered trees that usually appear stunted and gnarled like apple trees. Palms also
occur on savannas.

You find savannas in parts of Venezuela, Brazil, and the Guianas in South America. In Africa, you find
them in the southern Sahara (north-central Cameroon and Gabon and southern Sudan), Benin, Togo,
most of Nigeria, northeastern Zaire, northern Uganda, western Kenya, part of Malawi, part of Tanzania,
southern Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and western Madagascar.

Saltwater Swamps
Saltwater swamps are common in coastal areas subject to tidal flooding. Mangrove trees thrive in these
swamps. Mangrove trees can reach heights of 12 meters, and their tangled roots are an obstacle to
movement. Visibility in this type of swamp is poor, and movement is extremely difficult. Sometimes,
streams that you can raft form channels, but you usually must travel on foot through this swamp.
You find saltwater swamps in West Africa, Madagascar, Malaysia, the Pacific islands, Central and South
America, and at the mouth of the Ganges River in India. The swamps at the mouths of the Orinoco and
Amazon rivers and rivers of Guyana consist of mud and trees that offer little shade. Tides in saltwater
swamps can vary as much as 12 meters.
Everything in a saltwater swamp may appear hostile to you, from leeches and insects to crocodiles and
caimans. Avoid the dangerous animals in this swamp.
Avoid this swamp altogether if you can. If there are water channels through it, you may be able to use a
raft to escape.

Freshwater Swamps

Page 141 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

You find freshwater swamps in low-lying inland areas. Their characteristics are masses of thorny
undergrowth, reeds, grasses, and occasional short palms that reduce visibility and make travel difficult.
There are often islands that dot these swamps, allowing you to get out of the water. Wildlife is abundant
in these swamps.

TRAVEL THROUGH JUNGLE AREAS
With practice, movement through thick undergrowth and jungle can be done efficiently. Always wear long
sleeves to avoid cuts and scratches.
To move easily, you must develop "jungle eye," that is, you should not concentrate on the pattern of
bushes and trees to your immediate front. You must focus on the jungle further out and find natural
breaks in the foliage. Look through the jungle, not at it. Stop and stoop down occasionally to look along
the jungle floor. This action may reveal game trails that you can follow.
Stay alert and move slowly and steadily through dense forest or jungle. Stop periodically to listen and
take your bearings. Use a machete to cut through dense vegetation, but do not cut unnecessarily or you
will quickly wear yourself out. If using a machete, stroke upward when cutting vines to reduce noise
because sound carries long distances in the jungle. Use a stick to part the vegetation. Using a stick will
also help dislodge biting ants, spiders, or snakes. Do not grasp at brush or vines when climbing slopes;
they may have irritating spines or sharp thorns.
Many jungle and forest animals follow game trails. These trails wind and cross, but frequently lead to
water or clearings. Use these trails if they lead in your desired direction of travel.
In many countries, electric and telephone lines run for miles through sparsely inhabited areas. Usually,
the right-of-way is clear enough to allow easy travel. When traveling along these lines, be careful as you
approach transformer and relay stations. In enemy territory, they may be guarded.
TRAVEL TIPS
Pinpoint your initial location as accurately as possible to determine a general line of travel
to safety. If you do not have a compass, use a field-expedient direction finding method.

Take stock of water supplies and equipment.

Move in one direction, but not necessarily in a straight line. Avoid obstacles. In enemy
territory, take advantage of natural cover and concealment.

Move smoothly through the jungle. Do not blunder through it since you will get many cuts
and scratches. Turn your shoulders, shift your hips, bend your body, and shorten or
lengthen your stride as necessary to slide between the undergrowth.

IMMEDIATE CONSIDERATIONS
There is less likelihood of your rescue from beneath a dense jungle canopy than in other survival
situations. You will probably have to travel to reach safety.
If you are the victim of an aircraft crash, the most important items to take with you from the crash site are
a machete, a compass, a first aid kit, and a parachute or other material for use as mosquito netting and
shelter.
Page 142 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Take shelter from tropical rain, sun, and insects. Malaria-carrying mosquitoes and other insects are
immediate dangers, so protect yourself against bites.
Do not leave the crash area without carefully blazing or marking your route. Use your compass. Know
what direction you are taking.
In the tropics, even the smallest scratch can quickly become dangerously infected. Promptly treat any
wound, no matter how minor.

WATER PROCUREMENT
Even though water is abundant in most tropical environments, you may, as a survivor, have trouble
finding it. If you do find water, it may not be safe to drink. Some of the many sources are vines, roots,
palm trees, and condensation. You can sometimes follow animals to water. Often you can get nearly
clear water from muddy streams or lakes by digging a hole in sandy soil about 1 meter from the bank.
Water will seep into the hole. You must purify any water obtained in this manner.

Animals as Signs of Water
Animals can often lead you to water. Most animals require water regularly. Grazing animals such as
deer, are usually never far from water and usually drink at dawn and dusk. Converging game trails often
lead to water. Carnivores (meat eaters) are not reliable indicators of water. They get moisture from the
animals they eat and can go without water for long periods.
Birds can sometimes also lead you to water. Grain eaters, such as finches and pigeons, are never far
from water. They drink at dawn and dusk. When they fly straight and low, they are heading for water.
When returning from water, they are full and will fly from tree to tree, resting frequently. Do not rely on
water birds to lead you to water. They fly long distances without stopping. Hawks, eagles, and other birds
of prey get liquids from their victims; you cannot use them as a water indicator.
Insects can be good indicators of water, especially bees. Bees seldom range more than 6 kilometers
from their nests or hives. They usually will have a water source in this range. Ants need water. A column
of ants marching up a tree is going to a small reservoir of trapped water. You find such reservoirs even in
arid areas. Most flies stay within 100 meters of water, especially the European mason fly, easily
recognized by its iridescent green body.
Human tracks will usually lead to a well, bore hole, or soak. Scrub or rocks may cover it to reduce
evaporation. Replace the cover after use.

Water From Plants
Plants such as vines, roots, and palm trees are good sources of water.

Vines
Vines with rough bark and shoots about 5 centimeters thick can be a useful source of water. You must
learn by experience which are the water-bearing vines, because not all have drinkable water. Some may
even have a poisonous sap. The poisonous ones yield a sticky, milky sap when cut. Nonpoisonous vines
will give a clear fluid. Some vines cause a skin irritation on contact; therefore let the liquid drip into your
mouth, rather than put your mouth to the vine. Preferably, use some type of container. Use the procedure
described in Chapter 6 to obtain water from a vine.

Roots
In Australia, the water tree, desert oak, and bloodwood have roots near the surface. Pry these roots out
of the ground and cut them into 30-centimeter lengths. Remove the bark and suck out the moisture, or
shave the root to a pulp and squeeze it over your mouth.

Page 143 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Palm Trees
The buri, coconut, and nipa palms all contain a sugary fluid that is very good to drink. To obtain the
liquid, bend a flowering stalk of one of these palms downward, and cut off its tip. If you cut a thin slice off
the stalk every 12 hours, the flow will renew, making it possible to collect up to a liter per day. Nipa palm
shoots grow from the base, so that you can work at ground level. On grown trees of other species, you
may have to climb them to reach a flowering stalk. Milk from coconuts has a large water content, but may
contain a strong laxative in ripe nuts. Drinking too much of this milk may cause you to lose more fluid
than you drink.

Water From Condensation
Often it requires too much effort to dig for roots containing water. It may be easier to let a plant produce
water for you in the form of condensation. Tying a clear plastic bag around a green leafy branch will
cause water in the leaves to evaporate and condense in the bag. Placing cut vegetation in a plastic bag
will also produce condensation. This is a solar still (see Chapter 6).

FOOD
Food is usually abundant in a tropical survival situation. To obtain animal food, use the procedures
outlined in Chapter 8.
In addition to animal food, you will have to supplement your diet with edible plants. The best places to
forage are the banks of streams and rivers. Wherever the sun penetrates the jungle, there will be a mass
of vegetation, but river banks may be the most accessible areas.
If you are weak, do not expend energy climbing or felling a tree for food. There are more easily obtained
sources of food nearer the ground. Do not pick more food than you need. Food spoils rapidly in tropical
conditions. Leave food on the growing plant until you need it, and eat it fresh.
There are an almost unlimited number of edible plants from which to choose. Unless you can positively
identify these plants, it may be safer at first to begin with palms, bamboos, and common fruits. The list
below identifies some of the most common foods. Detailed descriptions and photographs are at
Appendix B.
TROPICAL ZONE FOOD PLANTS
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Bael fruit (Aegle marmelos)
Bamboo (various species)
Banana or plantain (Musa species)
Bignay (Antidesma bunius)
Breadfruit (Artrocarpus incisa)
Coconut palm (Cocos nucifera)
Fishtail palm (Caryota urens)
Horseradish tree (Moringa pterygosperma)
Lotus (Nelumbo species)
Mango (Mangifera indica)
Manioc (Manihot utillissima)
Nipa palm (Nipa fruticans)
Papaya (Carica papaya)
Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana)
Rattan palm (Calamus species)
Sago palm (Metroxylon sagu)
Sterculia (Sterculia foetida)
Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum)
Sugar palm (Arenga pinnata)
Sweetsop (Annona squamosa)
Taro (Colocasia and Alocasia species)
Page 144 of 233

FM 21-76

•
•
•
•

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Water lily (Nymphaea odorata)
Wild fig (Ficus species)
Wild rice (Zizania aquatica)
Yam (Dioscorea species)

POISONOUS PLANTS
The proportion of poisonous plants in tropical regions is no greater than in any other area of the world.
However, it may appear that most plants in the tropics are poisonous because of the great density of
plant growth in some tropical areas. See Appendix C.

Page 145 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

CHAPTER 15 - COLD WEATHER SURVIVAL

One of the most difficult survival situations is a cold weather scenario. Remember, cold
weather is an adversary that can be as dangerous as an enemy soldier. Every time you
venture into the cold, you are pitting yourself against the elements. With a little knowledge
of the environment, proper plans, and appropriate equipment, you can overcome the
elements. As you remove one or more of these factors, survival becomes increasingly
difficult. Remember, winter weather is highly variable. Prepare yourself to adapt to
blizzard conditions even during sunny and clear weather.
Cold is a far greater threat to survival than it appears. It decreases your ability to think and
weakens your will to do anything except to get warm. Cold is an insidious enemy; as it
numbs the mind and body, it subdues the will to survive.
Cold makes it very easy to forget your ultimate goal--to survive.

COLD REGIONS AND LOCATIONS
Cold regions include arctic and subarctic areas and areas immediately adjoining them. You can classify
about 48 percent of the northern hemisphere's total landmass as a cold region due to the influence and
extent of air temperatures. Ocean currents affect cold weather and cause large areas normally included
in the temperate zone to fall within the cold regions during winter periods. Elevation also has a marked
effect on defining cold regions.
Within the cold weather regions, you may face two types of cold weather environments--wet or dry.
Knowing in which environment your area of operations falls will affect planning and execution of a cold
weather operation.

Wet Cold Weather Environments
Wet cold weather conditions exist when the average temperature in a 24-hour period is -10 degrees C or
above. Characteristics of this condition are freezing during the colder night hours and thawing during the
day. Even though the temperatures are warmer during this condition, the terrain is usually very sloppy
due to slush and mud. You must concentrate on protecting yourself from the wet ground and from
freezing rain or wet snow.

Dry Cold Weather Environments
Dry cold weather conditions exist when the average temperature in a 24-hour period remains below -10
degrees C. Even though the temperatures in this condition are much lower than normal, you do not have
to contend with the freezing and thawing. In these conditions, you need more layers of inner clothing to
Page 146 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

protect you from temperatures as low as -60 degrees C. Extremely hazardous conditions exist when
wind and low temperature combine.

WINDCHILL
Windchill increases the hazards in cold regions. Windchill is the effect of moving air on exposed flesh.
For instance, with a 27.8-kph (15-knot) wind and a temperature of -10 degrees C, the equivalent windchill
temperature is -23 degrees C. Figure 15-1 gives the windchill factors for various temperatures and wind
speeds.

Remember, even when there is no wind, you will create the equivalent wind by skiing, running, being
towed on skis behind a vehicle, working around aircraft that produce wind blasts.

Page 147 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COLD
WEATHER SURVIVAL
It is more difficult for you to satisfy your basic water, food, and shelter needs in a cold environment than
in a warm environment. Even if you have the basic requirements, you must also have adequate
protective clothing and the will to survive. The will to survive is as important as the basic needs. There
have been incidents when trained and well-equipped individuals have not survived cold weather
situations because they lacked the will to live. Conversely, this will has sustained individuals less welltrained and equipped.
There are many different items of cold weather equipment and clothing issued by the U.S. Army today.
Specialized units may have access to newer, lightweight gear such as polypropylene underwear, GORETEX outerwear and boots, and other special equipment. Remember, however, the older gear will keep
you warm as long as you apply a few cold weather principles. If the newer types of clothing are available,
use them. If not, then your clothing should be entirely wool, with the possible exception of a windbreaker.
You must not only have enough clothing to protect you from the cold, you must also know how to
maximize the warmth you get from it. For example, always keep your head covered. You can lose 40 to
45 percent of body heat from an unprotected head and even more from the unprotected neck, wrist, and
ankles. These areas of the body are good radiators of heat and have very little insulating fat. The brain is
very susceptible to cold and can stand the least amount of cooling. Because there is much blood
circulation in the head, most of which is on the surface, you can lose heat quickly if you do not cover your
head.
There are four basic principles to follow to keep warm. An easy way to remember these basic principles
is to use the word COLD-C - Keep clothing clean.
O - Avoid overheating.
L - Wear clothes loose and in layers.
D - Keep clothing dry.
CKeep clothing clean. This principle is always important for sanitation and comfort. In winter, it
is also important from the standpoint of warmth. Clothes matted with dirt and grease lose
much of their insulation value. Heat can escape more easily from the body through the
clothing's crushed or filled up air pockets.
OAvoid overheating. When you get too hot, you sweat and your clothing absorbs the moisture.
This affects your warmth in two ways: dampness decreases the insulation quality of clothing,
and as sweat evaporates, your body cools. Adjust your clothing so that you do not sweat. Do
this by partially opening your parka or jacket, by removing an inner layer of clothing, by
removing heavy outer mittens, or by throwing back your parka hood or changing to lighter
headgear. The head and hands act as efficient heat dissipaters when overheated.
LWear your clothing loose and in layers. Wearing tight clothing and footgear restricts blood
circulation and invites cold injury. It also decreases the volume of air trapped between the
layers, reducing its insulating value. Several layers of lightweight clothing are better than one
equally thick layer of clothing, because the layers have dead-air space between them. The
dead-air space provides extra insulation. Also, layers of clothing allow you to take off or add
clothing layers to prevent excessive sweating or to increase warmth.
DKeep clothing dry. In cold temperatures, your inner layers of clothing can become wet from
sweat and your outer layer, if not water repellent, can become wet from snow and frost melted
by body heat. Wear water repellent outer clothing, if available. It will shed most of the water
collected from melting snow and frost. Before entering a heated shelter, brush off the snow
and frost. Despite the precautions you take, there will be times when you cannot keep from
getting wet. At such times, drying your clothing may become a major problem. On the march,
hang your damp mittens and socks on your rucksack. Sometimes in freezing temperatures,
the wind and sun will dry this clothing. You can also place damp socks or mittens, unfolded,
near your body so that your body heat can dry them. In a campsite, hang damp clothing inside
the shelter near the top, using drying lines or improvised racks. You may even be able to dry
each item by holding it before an open fire. Dry leather items slowly. If no other means are
Page 148 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

available for drying your boots, put them between your sleeping bag shell and liner. Your body
heat will help to dry the leather.
A heavy, down-lined sleeping bag is a valuable piece of survival gear in cold weather. Ensure the down
remains dry. If wet, it loses a lot of its insulation value. If you do not have a sleeping bag, you can make
one out of parachute cloth or similar material and natural dry material, such as leaves, pine needles, or
moss. Place the dry material between two layers of the material.
Other important survival items are a knife; waterproof matches in a waterproof container, preferably one
with a flint attached; a durable compass; map; watch; waterproof ground cloth and cover; flashlight;
binoculars; dark glasses; fatty emergency foods; food gathering gear; and signaling items.
Remember, a cold weather environment can be very harsh. Give a good deal of thought to selecting the
right equipment for survival in the cold. If unsure of an item you have never used, test it in an "overnight
backyard" environment before venturing further. Once you have selected items that are essential for your
survival, do not lose them after you enter a cold weather environment.

HYGIENE
Although washing yourself may be impractical and uncomfortable in a cold environment, you must do so.
Washing helps prevent skin rashes that can develop into more serious problems.
In some situations, you may be able to take a snow bath. Take a handful of snow and wash your body
where sweat and moisture accumulate, such as under the arms and between the legs, and then wipe
yourself dry. If possible, wash your feet daily and put on clean, dry socks. Change your underwear at
least twice a week. If you are unable to wash your underwear, take it off, shake it, and let it air out for an
hour or two.
If you are using a previously used shelter, check your body and clothing for lice each night. If your
clothing has become infested, use insecticide powder if you have any. Otherwise, hang your clothes in
the cold, then beat and brush them. This will help get rid of the lice, but not the eggs.
If you shave, try to do so before going to bed. This will give your skin a chance to recover before
exposing it to the elements.

MEDICAL ASPECTS
When you are healthy, your inner core temperature (torso temperature) remains almost constant at 37
degrees C (98.6 degrees F). Since your limbs and head have less protective body tissue than your torso,
their temperatures vary and may not reach core temperature.
Your body has a control system that lets it react to temperature extremes to maintain a temperature
balance. There are three main factors that affect this temperature balance--heat production, heat loss,
and evaporation. The difference between the body's core temperature and the environment's
temperature governs the heat production rate. Your body can get rid of heat better than it can produce it.
Sweating helps to control the heat balance. Maximum sweating will get rid of heat about as fast as
maximum exertion produces it.
Shivering causes the body to produce heat. It also causes fatigue that, in turn, leads to a drop in body
temperature. Air movement around your body affects heat loss. It has been calculated that a naked man
exposed to still air at or about 0 degrees C can maintain a heat balance if he shivers as hard as he can.
However, he can't shiver forever.
It has also been calculated that a man at rest wearing the maximum arctic clothing in a cold environment
can keep his internal heat balance during temperatures well below freezing. To withstand really cold
conditions for any length of time, however, he will have to become active or shiver.

COLD INJURIES
The best way to deal with injuries and sicknesses is to take measures to prevent them from happening in
the first place. Treat any injury or sickness that occurs as soon as possible to prevent it from worsening.
The knowledge of signs and symptoms and the use of the buddy system are critical in maintaining
health. Following are cold injuries that can occur.

Hypothermia
Page 149 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Hypothermia is the lowering of the body temperature at a rate faster than the body can produce heat.
Causes of hypothermia may be general exposure or the sudden wetting of the body by falling into a lake
or spraying with fuel or other liquids.
The initial symptom is shivering. This shivering may progress to the point that it is uncontrollable and
interferes with an individual's ability to care for himself. This begins when the body's core (rectal)
temperature falls to about 35.5 degrees C (96 degrees F). When the core temperature reaches 35 to 32
degrees C (95 to 90 degrees F), sluggish thinking, irrational reasoning, and a false feeling of warmth may
occur. Core temperatures of 32 to 30 degrees C (90 to 86 degrees F) and below result in muscle rigidity,
unconsciousness, and barely detectable signs of life. If the victim's core temperature falls below 25
degrees C (77 degrees F), death is almost certain.
To treat hypothermia, rewarm the entire body. If there are means available, rewarm the person by first
immersing the trunk area only in warm water of 37.7 to 43.3 degrees C (100 to 110 degrees F).
CAUTION
Rewarming the total body in a warm water bath should be done only in a hospital environment because
of the increased risk of cardiac arrest and rewarming shock.

One of the quickest ways to get heat to the inner core is to give warm water enemas. Such an action,
however, may not be possible in a survival situation. Another method is to wrap the victim in a warmed
sleeping bag with another person who is already warm; both should be naked.
CAUTION
The individual placed in the sleeping bag with victim could also become a hypothermia victim if left in the
bag too long.
If the person is conscious, give him hot, sweetened fluids. One of the best sources of calories is honey or
dextrose; if unavailable, use sugar, cocoa, or a similar soluble sweetener.
CAUTION
Do not force an unconscious person to drink.
There are two dangers in treating hypothermia--rewarming too rapidly and "after drop." Rewarming too
rapidly can cause the victim to have circulatory problems, resulting in heart failure. After drop is the sharp
body core temperature drop that occurs when taking the victim from the warm water. Its probable muse
is the return of previously stagnant limb blood to the core (inner torso) area as recirculation occurs.
Concentrating on warming the core area and stimulating peripheral circulation will lessen the effects of
after drop. Immersing the torso in a warm bath, if possible, is the best treatment.

Frostbite
This injury is the result of frozen tissues. Light frostbite involves only the skin that takes on a dull whitish
pallor. Deep frostbite extends to a depth below the skin. The tissues become solid and immovable. Your
feet, hands, and exposed facial areas are particularly vulnerable to frostbite.
The best frostbite prevention, when you are with others, is to use the buddy system. Check your buddy's
face often and make sure that he checks yours. If you are alone, periodically cover your nose and lower
part of your face with your mittened hand.
The following pointers will aid you in keeping warm and preventing frostbite when it is extremely cold or
when you have less than adequate clothing:
•
•
•
•

Face. Maintain circulation by twitching and wrinkling the skin on your face making faces. Warm
with your hands.
Ears. Wiggle and move your ears. Warm with your hands.
Hands. Move your hands inside your gloves. Warm by placing your hands close to your body.
Feet. Move your feet and wiggle your toes inside your boots.
Page 150 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

A loss of feeling in your hands and feet is a sign of frostbite. If you have lost feeling for only a short time,
the frostbite is probably light. Otherwise, assume the frostbite is deep. To rewarm a light frostbite, use
your hands or mittens to warm your face and ears. Place your hands under your armpits. Place your feet
next to your buddy's stomach. A deep frostbite injury, if thawed and refrozen, will cause more damage
than a nonmedically trained person can handle. Figure 15-2 lists some do's and don'ts regarding
frostbite.

Trench Foot and Immersion Foot
These conditions result from many hours or days of exposure to wet or damp conditions at a temperature
just above freezing. The symptoms are a sensation of pins and needles, tingling, numbness, and then
pain. The skin will initially appear wet, soggy, white, and shriveled. As it progresses and damage
appears, the skin will take on a red and then a bluish or black discoloration. The feet become cold,
swollen, and have a waxy appearance. Walking becomes difficult and the feet feel heavy and numb. The
nerves and muscles sustain the main damage, but gangrene can occur. In extreme cases, the flesh dies
and it may become necessary to have the foot or leg amputated. The best prevention is to keep your feet
dry. Carry extra socks with you in a waterproof packet. You can dry wet socks against your torso (back or
chest). Wash your feet and put on dry socks daily.

Dehydration
When bundled up in many layers of clothing during cold weather, you may be unaware that you are
losing body moisture. Your heavy clothing absorbs the moisture that evaporates in the air. You must
drink water to replace this loss of fluid. Your need for water is as great in a cold environment as it is in a
warm environment (Chapter 13). One way to tell if you are becoming dehydrated is to check the color of
your urine on snow. If your urine makes the snow dark yellow, you are becoming dehydrated and need to
replace body fluids. If it makes the snow light yellow to no color, your body fluids have a more normal
balance.

Cold Diuresis
Exposure to cold increases urine output. It also decreases body fluids that you must replace.

Sunburn
Exposed skin can become sunburned even when the air temperature is below freezing. The sun's rays
reflect at all angles from snow, ice, and water, hitting sensitive areas of skin--lips, nostrils, and eyelids.
Exposure to the sun results in sunburn more quickly at high altitudes than at low altitudes. Apply sunburn
cream or lip salve to your face when in the sun.

Snow Blindness
Page 151 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

The reflection of the sun's ultraviolet rays off a snow-covered area causes this condition. The symptoms
of snow blindness are a sensation of grit in the eyes, pain in and over the eyes that increases with
eyeball movement, red and teary eyes, and a headache that intensifies with continued exposure to light.
Prolonged exposure to these rays can result in permanent eye damage. To treat snow blindness,
bandage your eyes until the symptoms disappear.
You can prevent snow blindness by wearing sunglasses. If you don't have sunglasses, improvise. Cut
slits in a piece of cardboard, thin wood, tree bark, or other available material (Figure 15-3). Putting soot
under your eyes will help reduce shine and glare.

Constipation
It is very important to relieve yourself when needed. Do not delay because of the cold condition. Delaying
relieving yourself because of the cold, eating dehydrated foods, drinking too little liquid, and irregular
eating habits can cause you to become constipated. Although not disabling, constipation can cause
some discomfort. Increase your fluid intake to at least 2 liters above your normal 2 to 3 liters daily intake
and, if available, eat fruit and other foods that will loosen the stool.

Insect Bites
Insect bites can become infected through constant scratching. Flies can carry various disease-producing
germs. To prevent insect bites, use insect repellent, netting, and wear proper clothing. See Chapter 11
for information on insect bites and Chapter 4 for treatment.

SHELTERS
Your environment and the equipment you carry with you will determine the type of shelter you can build.
You can build shelters in wooded areas, open country, and barren areas. Wooded areas usually provide
the best location, while barren areas have only snow as building material. Wooded areas provide timber
for shelter construction, wood for fire, concealment from observation, and protection from the wind.
Note: In extreme cold, do not use metal, such as an aircraft fuselage, for shelter. The
metal will conduct away from the shelter what little heat you can generate.
Shelters made from ice or snow usually require tools such as ice axes or saws. You must also expend
much time and energy to build such a shelter. Be sure to ventilate an enclosed shelter, especially if you
intend to build a fire in it. Always block a shelter's entrance, if possible, to keep the heat in and the wind
out. Use a rucksack or snow block. Construct a shelter no larger than needed. This will reduce the
amount of space to heat. A fatal error in cold weather shelter construction is making the shelter so large
that it steals body heat rather than saving it. Keep shelter space small.
Page 152 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Never sleep directly on the ground. Lay down some pine boughs, grass, or other insulating material to
keep the ground from absorbing your body heat.
Never fall asleep without turning out your stove or lamp. Carbon monoxide poisoning can result from a
fire burning in an unventilated shelter. Carbon monoxide is a great danger. It is colorless and odorless.
Any time you have an open flame, it may generate carbon monoxide. Always check your ventilation.
Even in a ventilated shelter, incomplete combustion can cause carbon monoxide poisoning. Usually,
there are no symptoms. Unconsciousness and death can occur without warning. Sometimes, however,
pressure at the temples, burning of the eyes, headache, pounding pulse, drowsiness, or nausea may
occur. The one characteristic, visible sign of carbon monoxide poisoning is a cherry red coloring in the
tissues of the lips, mouth, and inside of the eyelids. Get into fresh air at once if you have any of these
symptoms.
There are several types of field-expedient shelters you can quickly build or employ. Many use snow for
insulation.

Snow Cave Shelter
The snow cave shelter (Figure 15-4) is a most effective shelter because of the insulating qualities of
snow. Remember that it takes time and energy to build and that you will get wet while building it. First,
you need to find a drift about 3 meters deep into which you can dig. While building this shelter, keep the
roof arched for strength and to allow melted snow to drain down the sides. Build the sleeping platform
higher than the entrance. Separate the sleeping platform from the snow cave's walls or dig a small trench
between the platform and the wall. This platform will prevent the melting snow from wetting you and your
equipment. This construction is especially important if you have a good source of heat in the snow cave.
Ensure the roof is high enough so that you can sit up on the sleeping platform. Block the entrance with a
snow block or other material and use the lower entrance area for cooking. The walls and ceiling should
be at least 30 centimeters thick. Install a ventilation shaft. If you do not have a drift large enough to build
a snow cave, you can make a variation of it by piling snow into a mound large enough to dig out.

Page 153 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Snow Trench Shelter
The idea behind this shelter (Figure 15-4) is to get you below the snow and wind level and use the
snow's insulating qualities. If you are in an area of compacted snow, cut snow blocks and use them as
overhead cover. If not, you can use a poncho or other material. Build only one entrance and use a snow
block or rucksack as a door.

Snow Block and Parachute Shelter
Use snow blocks for the sides and parachute material for overhead cover (Figure 15-4). If snowfall is
heavy, you will have to clear snow from the top at regular intervals to prevent the collapse of the
parachute material.
Page 154 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Snow House or Igloo
In certain areas, the natives frequently use this type of shelter (Figure 15-4) as hunting and fishing
shelters. They are efficient shelters but require some practice to make them properly. Also, you must be
in an area that is suitable for cutting snow blocks and have the equipment to cut them (snow saw or
knife).

Lean-To Shelter
Construct this shelter in the same manner as for other environments; however, pile snow around the
sides for insulation (Figure 15-5).

Fallen Tree Shelter
To build this shelter, find a fallen tree and dig out the snow underneath it (Figure 15-6). The snow will not
be deep under the tree. If you must remove branches from the inside, use them to line the floor.

Tree-Pit Shelter

Page 155 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Dig snow out from under a suitable large tree. It will not be as deep near the base of the tree. Use the cut
branches to line the shelter. Use a ground sheet as overhead cover to prevent snow from falling off the
tree into the shelter. If built properly, you can have 360-degree visibility (Figure 5-12, Chapter 5).

20-Man Life Raft
This raft is the standard overwater raft on U.S. Air Force aircraft. You can use it as a shelter. Do not let
large amounts of snow build up on the overhead protection. If placed in an open area, it also serves as a
good signal to overhead aircraft.

FIRE
Fire is especially important in cold weather. It not only provides a means to prepare food, but also to get
warm and to melt snow or ice for water. It also provides you with a significant psychological boost by
making you feel a little more secure in your situation.
Use the techniques described in Chapter 7 to build and light your fire. If you are in enemy territory,
remember that the smoke, smell, and light from your fire may reveal your location. Light reflects from
surrounding trees or rocks, making even indirect light a source of danger. Smoke tends to go straight up
in cold, calm weather, making it a beacon during the day, but helping to conceal the smell at night. In
warmer weather, especially in a wooded area, smoke tends to hug the ground, making it less visible in
the day, but making its odor spread.
If you are in enemy territory, cut low tree boughs rather than the entire tree for firewood. Fallen trees are
easily seen from the air.
All wood will burn, but some types of wood create more smoke than others. For instance, coniferous
trees that contain resin and tar create more and darker smoke than deciduous trees.
There are few materials to use for fuel in the high mountainous regions of the arctic. You may find some
grasses and moss, but very little. The lower the elevation, the more fuel available. You may find some
scrub willow and small, stunted spruce trees above the tree line. On sea ice, fuels are seemingly
nonexistent. Driftwood or fats may be the only fuels available to a survivor on the barren coastlines in the
arctic and subarctic regions.
Abundant fuels within the tree line are-•
•

•

Spruce trees are common in the interior regions. As a conifer, spruce makes a lot of smoke when
burned in the spring and summer months. However, it burns almost smoke-free in late fall and
winter.
The tamarack tree is also a conifer. It is the only tree of the pine family that loses its needles in
the fall. Without its needles, it looks like a dead spruce, but it has many knobby buds and cones
on its bare branches. When burning, tamarack wood makes a lot of smoke and is excellent for
signaling purposes.
Birch trees are deciduous and the wood burns hot and fast, as if soaked with oil or kerosene.
Most birches grow near streams and lakes, but occasionally you will find a few on higher ground
and away from water.
Willow and alder grow in arctic regions, normally in marsh areas or near lakes and streams.
These woods burn hot and fast without much smoke.

Dried moss, grass, and scrub willow are other materials you can use for fuel. These are usually plentiful
near streams in tundras (open, treeless plains). By bundling or twisting grasses or other scrub vegetation
to form a large, solid mass, you will have a slower burning, more productive fuel.
If fuel or oil is available from a wrecked vehicle or downed aircraft, use it for fuel. Leave the fuel in the
tank for storage, drawing on the supply only as you need it. Oil congeals in extremely cold temperatures,
therefore, drain it from the vehicle or aircraft while still warm if there is no danger of explosion or fire. If
you have no container, let the oil drain onto the snow or ice. Scoop up the fuel as you need it.
CAUTION
Do not expose flesh to petroleum, oil, and lubricants in extremely cold temperatures. The liquid state of
Page 156 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

these products is deceptive in that it can cause frostbite.
Some plastic products, such as MRE spoons, helmet visors, visor housings, aid foam rubber will ignite
quickly from a burning match. They will also burn long enough to help start a fire. For example, a plastic
spoon will burn for about 10 minutes.
In cold weather regions, there are some hazards in using fires, whether to keep warm or to cook. For
example-•
•
•
•
•

Fires have been known to burn underground, resurfacing nearby. Therefore, do not build a fire
too close to a shelter.
In snow shelters, excessive heat will melt the insulating layer of snow that may also be your
camouflage.
A fire inside a shelter lacking adequate ventilation can result in carbon monoxide poisoning.
A person trying to get warm or to dry clothes may become careless and burn or scorch his
clothing and equipment.
Melting overhead snow may get you wet, bury you and your equipment, and possibly extinguish
your fire.

In general, a small fire and some type of stove is the best combination for cooking purposes. A hobo
stove (Figure 15-7) is particularly suitable to the arctic. It is easy to make out of a tin can, and it
conserves fuel. A bed of hot coals provides the best cooking heat. Coals from a crisscross fire will settle
uniformly. Make this type of fire by crisscrossing the firewood. A simple crane propped on a forked stick
will hold a cooking container over a fire.

For heating purposes, a single candle provides enough heat to warm an enclosed shelter. A small fire
about the size of a man's hand is ideal for use in enemy territory. It requires very little fuel, yet it
generates considerable warmth and is hot enough to warm liquids.

WATER
There are many sources of water in the arctic and subarctic. Your location and the season of the year will
determine where and how you obtain water.
Water sources in arctic and subarctic regions are more sanitary than in other regions due to the climatic
and environmental conditions. However, always purify the water before drinking it. During the summer
months, the best natural sources of water are freshwater lakes, streams, ponds, rivers, and springs.
Water from ponds or lakes may be slightly stagnant, but still usable. Running water in streams, rivers,
and bubbling springs is usually fresh and suitable for drinking.
Page 157 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

The brownish surface water found in a tundra during the summer is a good source of water. However,
you may have to filter the water before purifying it.
You can melt freshwater ice and snow for water. Completely melt both before putting them in your
mouth. Trying to melt ice or snow in your mouth takes away body heat and may cause internal cold
injuries. If on or near pack ice in the sea, you can use old sea ice to melt for water. In time, sea ice loses
its salinity. You can identify this ice by its rounded corners and bluish color.
You can use body heat to melt snow. Place the snow in a water bag and place the bag between your
layers of clothing. This is a slow process, but you can use it on the move or when you have no fire.
Note: Do not waste fuel to melt ice or snow when drinkable water is available from other
sources.
When ice is available, melt it, rather than snow. One cup of ice yields more water than one cup of snow.
Ice also takes less time to melt. You can melt ice or snow in a water bag, MRE ration bag, tin can, or
improvised container by placing the container near a fire. Begin with a small amount of ice or snow in the
container and, as it turns to water, add more ice or snow.
Another way to melt ice or snow is by putting it in a bag made from porous material and suspending the
bag near the fire. Place a container under the bag to catch the water.
During cold weather, avoid drinking a lot of liquid before going to bed. Crawling out of a warm sleeping
bag at night to relieve yourself means less rest and more exposure to the cold.
Once you have water, keep it next to you to prevent refreezing. Also, do not fill your canteen completely.
Allowing the water to slosh around will help keep it from freezing.

FOOD
There are several sources of food in the arctic and subarctic regions. The type of food--fish, animal, fowl,
or plant--and the ease in obtaining it depend on the time of the year and your location.

Fish
During the summer months, you can easily get fish and other water life from coastal waters, streams,
rivers, and lakes. Use the techniques described in Chapter 8 to catch fish.
The North Atlantic and North Pacific coastal waters are rich in seafood. You can easily find crawfish,
snails, clams, oysters, and king crab. In areas where there is a great difference between the high and low
tide water levels, you can easily find shellfish at low tide. Dig in the sand on the tidal flats. Look in tidal
pools and on offshore reefs. In areas where there is a small difference between the high- and low-tide
water levels, storm waves often wash shellfish onto the beaches.
The eggs of the spiny sea urchin that lives in the waters around the Aleutian Islands and southern Alaska
are excellent food. Look for the sea urchins in tidal pools. Break the shell by placing it between two
stones. The eggs are bright yellow in color.
Most northern fish and fish eggs are edible. Exceptions are the meat of the arctic shark and the eggs of
the sculpins.
The bivalves, such as clams and mussels, are usually more palatable than spiral-shelled seafood, such
as snails.
WARNING
The black mussel, a common mollusk of the far north, may be poisonous in any season. Toxins
sometimes found in the mussel's tissue are as dangerous as strychnine.
The sea cucumber is another edible sea animal. Inside its body are five long white muscles that taste
much like clam meat.
In early summer, smelt spawn in the beach surf. Sometimes you can scoop them up with your hands.
You can often find herring eggs on the seaweed in midsummer. Kelp, the long ribbonlike seaweed, and
other smaller seaweed that grow among offshore rocks are also edible.

Sea Ice Animals
Page 158 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

You find polar bears in practically all arctic coastal regions, but rarely inland. Avoid them if possible. They
are the most dangerous of all bears. They are tireless, clever hunters with good sight and an
extraordinary sense of smell. If you must kill one for food, approach it cautiously. Aim for the brain; a
bullet elsewhere will rarely kill one. Always cook polar bear meat before eating it.
CAUTION
Do not eat polar bear liver as it contains a toxic concentration of vitamin A.
Earless seal meat is some of the best meat available. You need considerable skill, however, to get close
enough to an earless seal to kill it. In spring, seals often bask on the ice beside their breathing holes.
They raise their heads about every 30 seconds, however, to look for their enemy, the polar bear.
To approach a seal, do as the Eskimos do--stay downwind from it, cautiously moving closer while it
sleeps. If it moves, stop and imitate its movements by lying flat on the ice, raising your head up and
down, and wriggling your body slightly. Approach the seal with your body side-ways to it and your arms
close to your body so that you look as much like another seal as possible. The ice at the edge of the
breathing hole is usually smooth and at an incline, so the least movement of the seal may cause it to
slide into the water. Therefore, try to get within 22 to 45 meters of the seal and kill it instantly (aim for the
brain). Try to reach the seal before it slips into the water. In winter, a dead seal will usually float, but it is
difficult to retrieve from the water.
Keep the seal blubber and skin from coming into contact with any scratch or broken skin you may have.
You could get "spekk-finger," that is, a reaction that causes the hands to become badly swollen.
Keep in mind that where there are seals, there are usually polar bears, and polar bears have stalked and
killed seal hunters.
You can find porcupines in southern subarctic regions where there are trees. Porcupines feed on bark; if
you find tree limbs stripped bare, you are likely to find porcupines in the area.
Ptarmigans, owls, Canadian jays, grouse, and ravens are the only birds that remain in the arctic during
the winter. They are scarce north of the tree line. Ptarmigans and owls are as good for food as any game
bird. Ravens are too thin to be worth the effort it takes to catch them. Ptarmigans, which change color to
blend with their surroundings, are hard to spot. Rock ptarmigans travel in pairs and you can easily
approach them. Willow ptarmigans live among willow clumps in bottom-lands. They gather in large flocks
and you can easily snare them. During the summer months all arctic birds have a 2- to 3-week molting
period during which they cannot fly and are easy to catch. Use one of the techniques described in
Chapter 8 to catch them.
Skin and butcher game (see Chapter 8) while it is still warm. If you do not have time to skin the game, at
least remove its entrails, musk glands, and genitals before storing. If time allows, cut the meat into
usable pieces and freeze each separately so that you can use the pieces as needed. Leave the fat on all
animals except seals. During the winter, game freezes quickly if left in the open. During the summer, you
can store it in underground ice holes.

Plants
Although tundras support a variety of plants during the warm months, all are small, however, when
compared to plants in warmer climates. For instance, the arctic willow and birch are shrubs rather than
trees. The following is a list of some plant foods found in arctic and subarctic regions (see Appendix B for
descriptions).
ARCTIC FOOD PLANTS
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Arctic raspberry and blueberry
Arctic willow
Bearberry
Cranberry
Crowberry
Dandelion
Eskimo potato
Page 159 of 233

FM 21-76

•
•
•
•
•
•

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Fireweed
Iceland moss
Marsh marigold
Reindeer moss
Rock tripe
Spatterdock

There are some plants growing in arctic and subarctic regions that are poisonous if eaten (see Appendix
C). Use the plants that you know are edible. When in doubt, follow the Universal Edibility Test in Chapter
9, Figure 9-5.

TRAVEL
As a survivor or an evader in an arctic or subarctic region, you will face many obstacles. Your location
and the time of the year will determine the types of obstacles and the inherent dangers. You should-•
•
•

•
•
•

•
•

•

Avoid traveling during a blizzard.
Take care when crossing thin ice. Distribute your weight by lying flat and crawling.
Cross streams when the water level is lowest. Normal freezing and thawing action may cause a
stream level to vary as much as 2 to 2.5 meters per day. This variance may occur any time during
the day, depending on the distance from a glacier, the temperature, and the terrain. Consider this
variation in water level when selecting a campsite near a stream.
Consider the clear arctic air. It makes estimating distance difficult. You more frequently
underestimate than overestimate distances.
Do not travel in "whiteout" conditions. The lack of contrasting colors makes it impossible to judge
the nature of the terrain.
Always cross a snow bridge at right angles to the obstacle it crosses. Find the strongest part of
the bridge by poking ahead of you with a pole or ice axe. Distribute your weight by crawling or by
wearing snowshoes or skis.
Make camp early so that you have plenty of time to build a shelter.
Consider frozen or unfrozen rivers as avenues of travel. However, some rivers that appear frozen
may have soft, open areas that make travel very difficult or may not allow walking, skiing, or
sledding.
Use snowshoes if you are traveling over snow-covered terrain. Snow 30 or more centimeters
deep makes traveling difficult. If you do not have snowshoes, make a pair using willow, strips of
cloth, leather, or other suitable material.

It is almost impossible to travel in deep snow without snowshoes or skis. Traveling by foot leaves a wellmarked trail for any pursuers to follow. If you must travel in deep snow, avoid snow-covered streams.
The snow, which acts as an insulator, may have prevented ice from forming over the water. In hilly
terrain, avoid areas where avalanches appear possible. Travel in the early morning in areas where there
is danger of avalanches. On ridges, snow gathers on the lee side in overhanging piles called cornices.
These often extend far out from the ridge and may break loose if stepped on.

WEATHER SIGNS
There are several good indicators of climatic changes.

Wind
You can determine wind direction by dropping a few leaves or grass or by watching the treetops. Once
you determine the wind direction, you can predict the type of weather that is imminent. Rapidly shifting
winds indicate an unsettled atmosphere and a likely change in the weather.
Page 160 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Clouds
Clouds come in a variety of shapes and patterns. A general knowledge of clouds and the atmospheric
conditions they indicate can help you predict the weather. See Appendix G for details.

Smoke
Smoke rising in a thin vertical column indicates fair weather. Low rising or "flattened out" smoke indicates
stormy weather.

Birds and Insects
Birds and insects fly lower to the ground than normal in heavy, moisture-laden air. Such flight indicates
that rain is likely. Most insect activity increases before a storm, but bee activity increases before fair
weather.

Low-Pressure Front
Slow-moving or imperceptible winds and heavy, humid air often indicate a low-pressure front. Such a
front promises bad weather that will probably linger for several days. You can "smell" and "hear" this
front. The sluggish, humid air makes wilderness odors more pronounced than during high-pressure
conditions. In addition, sounds are sharper and carry farther in low-pressure than high-pressure
conditions.

Page 161 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

CHAPTER 16 - SEA SURVIVAL

Perhaps the most difficult survival situation to be in is sea survival. Short-or long-term
survival depends upon rations and equipment available and your ingenuity. You must be
resourceful to survive.
Water covers about 75 percent of the earth's surface, with about 70 percent being oceans
and seas. You can assume that you will sometime cross vast expanses of water. There is
always the chance that the plane or ship you are on will become crippled by such hazards
as storms, collision, fire, or war.

THE OPEN SEA
As a survivor on the open sea, you will face waves and wind. You may also face extreme heat or cold.
To keep these environmental hazards from becoming serious problems, take precautionary measures as
soon as possible. Use the available resources to protect yourself from the elements and from heat or
extreme cold and humidity.
Protecting yourself from the elements meets only one of your basic needs. You must also be able to
obtain water and food. Satisfying these three basic needs will help prevent serious physical and
psychological problems. However, you must know how to treat health problems that may result from your
situation.

Precautionary Measures
Your survival at sea depends upon-•
•
•

Your knowledge of and ability to use the available survival equipment.
Your special skills and ability to apply them to cope with the hazards you face.
Your will to live.

When you board a ship or aircraft, find out what survival equipment is on board, where it is stowed, and
what it contains. For instance, how many life preservers and lifeboats or rafts are on board? Where are
they located? What type of survival equipment do they have? How much food, water, and medicine do
they contain? How many people are they designed to support?
If you are responsible for other personnel on board, make sure you know where they are and they know
where you are.

Down at Sea
If you are in an aircraft that goes down at sea, take the following actions once you clear the aircraft.
Whether you are in the water or in a raft --

Page 162 of 233

FM 21-76

•
•
•

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Get clear and upwind of the aircraft as soon as possible, but stay in the vicinity until the aircraft
sinks.
Get clear of fuel-covered water in case the fuel ignites.
Try to find other survivors.

A search for survivors usually takes place around the entire area of and near the crash site. Missing
personnel may be unconscious and floating low in the water. Figure 16-1 illustrates rescue procedures.

The best technique for rescuing personnel from the water is to throw them a life preserver attached to a
line. Another is to send a swimmer (rescuer) from the raft with a line attached to a flotation device that
will support the rescuer's weight. This device will help conserve a rescuer's energy while recovering the
survivor. The least acceptable technique is to send an attached swimmer without flotation devices to
retrieve a survivor. In all cases, the rescuer wears a life preserver. A rescuer should not underestimate
the strength of a panic-stricken person in the water. A careful approach can prevent injury to the rescuer.

Page 163 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

When the rescuer approaches a survivor in trouble from behind, there is little danger the survivor will
kick, scratch, or grab him. The rescuer swims to a point directly behind the survivor and grasps the life
preserver's backstrap. The rescuer uses the sidestroke to drag the survivor to the raft.
If you are in the water, make your way to a raft. If no rafts are available, try to find a large piece of
floating debris to cling to. Relax; a person who knows how to relax in ocean water is in very little danger
of drowning. The body's natural buoyancy will keep at least the top of the head above water, but some
movement is needed to keep the face above water.
Floating on your back takes the least energy. Lie on your back in the water, spread your arms and legs,
and arch your back. By controlling your breathing in and out, your face will always be out of the water
and you may even sleep in this position for short periods. Your head will be partially submerged, but your
face will be above water. If you cannot float on your back or if the sea is too rough, float facedown in the
water as shown in Figure 16-2.

The following are the best swimming strokes during a survival situation:
•
•

•
•

Dog paddle. This stroke is excellent when clothed or wearing a life jacket. Although slow in
speed, it requires very little energy.
Breaststroke. Use this stroke to swim underwater, through oil or debris, or in rough seas. It is
probably the best stroke for long-range swimming: it allows you to conserve your energy and
maintain a reasonable speed.
Sidestroke. It is a good relief stroke because you use only one arm to maintain momentum and
buoyancy.
Backstroke. This stroke is also an excellent relief stroke. It relieves the muscles that you use for
other strokes. Use it if an underwater explosion is likely.

If you are in an area where surface oil is burning-•

Discard your shoes and buoyant life preserver.
Note: If you have an uninflated life preserver, keep it.

•
•

Cover your nose, mouth, and eyes and quickly go underwater.
Swim underwater as far as possible before surfacing to breathe.
Page 164 of 233

FM 21-76

•

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Before surfacing to breathe and while still underwater, use your hands to push burning fluid away
from the area where you wish to surface. Once an area is clear of burning liquid, you can surface
and take a few breaths. Try to face downwind before inhaling.
Submerge feet first and continue as above until clear of the flames.

If you are in oil-covered water that is free of fire, hold your head high to keep the oil out of your eyes.
Attach your life preserver to your wrist and then use it as a raft.
If you have a life preserver, you can stay afloat for an indefinite period. In this case, use the "HELP" body
position: Heat Escaping Lessening Posture (HELP). Remain still and assume the fetal position to help
you retain body heat. You lose about 50 percent of your body heat through your head. Therefore, keep
your head out of the water. Other areas of high heat loss are the neck, the sides, and the groin. Figure
16-3 illustrates the HELP position.

If you are in a raft-•

•

Check the physical condition of all on board. Give first aid if necessary. Take seasickness pills if
available. The best way to take these pills is to place them under the tongue and let them
dissolve. There are also suppositories or injections against seasickness. Vomiting, whether from
seasickness or other causes, increases the danger of dehydration.
Try to salvage all floating equipment--rations; canteens, thermos jugs, and other containers;
clothing; seat cushions; parachutes; and anything else that will be useful to you. Secure the
salvaged items in or to your raft. Make sure the items have no sharp edges that can puncture the
raft.
If there are other rafts, lash the rafts together so they are about 7.5 meters apart. Be ready to
draw them closer together if you see or hear an aircraft. It is easier for an aircrew to spot rafts that
are close together rather than scattered.
Remember, rescue at sea is a cooperative effort. Use all available visual or electronic signaling
devices to signal and make contact with rescuers. For example, raise a flag or reflecting material
on an oar as high as possible to attract attention.
Locate the emergency radio and get it into operation. Operating instructions are on it. Use the
emergency transceiver only when friendly aircraft are likely to be in the area.
Page 165 of 233

FM 21-76

•

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Have other signaling devices ready for instant use. If you are in enemy territory, avoid using a
signaling device that will alert the enemy. However, if your situation is desperate, you may have
to signal the enemy for rescue if you are to survive.

Check the raft for inflation, leaks, and points of possible chafing. Make sure the main buoyancy
chambers are firm (well rounded) but not overly tight (Figure 16-4). Check inflation regularly. Air expands
with heat; therefore, on hot days, release some air and add air when the weather cools.
•

Decontaminate the raft of all fuel. Petroleum will weaken its surfaces and break down its glued
joints.

Throw out the sea anchor, or improvise a drag from the raft's case, bailing bucket, or a roll of clothing. A
sea anchor helps you stay close to your ditching site, making it easier for searchers to find you if you
have relayed your location. Without a sea anchor, your raft may drift over 160 kilometers in a day,
making it much harder to find you. You can adjust the sea anchor to act as a drag to slow down the rate
of travel with the current, or as a means to travel with the current. You make this adjustment by opening
or closing the sea anchor's apex. When open, the sea anchor (Figure 16-5) acts as a drag that keeps
you in the general area. When closed, it forms a pocket for the current to strike and propels the raft in the
current's direction.

Page 166 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Additionally, adjust the sea anchor so that when the raft is on the wave's crest, the sea anchor is in the
wave's trough (Figure 16-6).
•
•

•

Wrap the sea anchor rope with cloth to prevent its chafing the raft. The anchor also helps to keep
the raft headed into the wind and waves.
In stormy water, rig the spray and windshield at once. In a 20-man raft, keep the canopy erected
at all times. Keep your raft as dry as possible. Keep it properly balanced. All personnel should
stay seated, the heaviest one in the center.
Calmly consider all aspects of your situation and determine what you and your companions must
do to survive. Inventory all equipment, food, and water. Waterproof items that salt water may
affect. These include compasses, watches, sextant, matches, and lighters. Ration food and
water.
Assign a duty position to each person: for example, water collector, food collector, lookout, radio
operator, signaler, and water bailers.
Note: Lookout duty should not exceed 2 hours. Keep in mind and remind others that
cooperation is one of the keys to survival.

•

Keep a log. Record the navigator's last fix, the time of ditching, the names and physical condition
of personnel, and the ration schedule. Also record the winds, weather, direction of swells, times of
sunrise and sunset, and other navigational data.
If you are down in unfriendly waters, take special security measures to avoid detection. Do not
travel in the daytime. Throw out the sea anchor and wait for nightfall before paddling or hoisting
sail. Keep low in the raft; stay covered with the blue side of the camouflage cloth up. Be sure a
passing ship or aircraft is friendly or neutral be-fore trying to attract its attention. If the enemy
detects you and you are close to capture, destroy the log book, radio, navigation equipment,
maps, signaling equipment, and firearms. Jump overboard and submerge if the enemy starts
strafing.
Decide whether to stay in position or to travel. Ask yourself, "How much information was signaled
before the accident? Is your position known to rescuers? Do you know it yourself? Is the weather
favorable for a search? Are other ships or aircraft likely to pass your present position? How many
days supply of food and water do you have?"

Page 167 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Cold Weather Considerations
If you are in a cold climate-•
•
•
•
•
•

Put on an antiexposure suit. If unavailable, put on any extra clothing available. Keep clothes
loose and comfortable.
Take care not to snag the raft with shoes or sharp objects. Keep the repair kit where you can
readily reach it.
Rig a windbreak, spray shield, and canopy.
Try to keep the floor of the raft dry. Cover it with canvas or cloth for insulation.
Huddle with others to keep warm, moving enough to keep the blood circulating. Spread an extra
tarpaulin, sail, or parachute over the group.
Give extra rations, if available, to men suffering from exposure to cold.

The greatest problem you face when submerged in cold water is death due to hypothermia. When you
are immersed in cold water, hypothermia occurs rapidly due to the decreased insulating quality of wet
clothing and the result of water displacing the layer of still air that normally surrounds the body. The rate
of heat exchange in water is about 25 times greater than it is in air of the same temperature. Figure 16-7
lists life expectancy times for immersion in water.

Your best protection against the effects of cold water is to get into the life raft, stay dry, and insulate your
body from the cold surface of the bottom of the raft. If these actions are not possible, wearing an
antiexposure suit will extend your life expectancy considerably. Remember, keep your head and neck out
of the water and well insulated from the cold water's effects when the temperature is below 19 degrees
C. Wearing life preservers increases the predicted survival time as body position in the water increases
the chance of survival.
Page 168 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Hot Weather Considerations
If you are in a hot climate-•
•

Rig a sunshade or canopy. Leave enough space for ventilation.
Cover your skin, where possible, to protect it from sunburn. Use sunburn cream, if available, on
all exposed skin. Your eyelids, the back of your ears, and the skin under your chin sunburn easily.

Raft Procedures
Most of the rafts in the U. S. Army and Air Force inventories can satisfy the needs for personal
protection, mode of travel, and evasion and camouflage.
Note: Before boarding any raft, remove and tether (attach) your life preserver to yourself
or the raft. Ensure there are no other metallic or sharp objects on your clothing or
equipment that could damage the raft. After boarding the raft, don your life preserver
again.
One-Man Raft
The one-man raft has a main cell inflation. If the CO2 bottle should malfunction or if the raft develops a
leak, you can inflate it by mouth.
The spray shield acts as a shelter from the cold, wind, and water. In some cases, this shield serves as
insulation. The raft's insulated bottom limits the conduction of cold thereby protecting you from
hypothermia (Figure 16-8).

You can travel more effectively by inflating or deflating the raft to take advantage of the wind or current.
You can use the spray shield as a sail white the ballast buckets serve to increase drag in the water. You
may use the sea anchor to control the raft's speed and direction.
There are rafts developed for use in tactical areas that are black. These rafts blend with the sea's
background. You can further modify these rafts for evasion by partially deflating them to obtain a lower
profile.
A lanyard connects the one-man raft to a parachutist (survivor) landing in the water. You (the survivor)
inflate it upon landing. You do not swim to the raft, but pull it to you via the lanyard. The raft may hit the
water upside down, but you can right it by approaching the side to which the bottle is attached and
Page 169 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

flipping the raft over. The spray shield must be in the raft to expose the boarding handles. Follow the
steps outlined in the note under raft procedures above when boarding the raft (Figure 16-9).

If you have an arm injury, the best way to board is by turning your back to the small end of the raft,
pushing the raft under your buttocks, and lying back. Another way to board the raft is to push down on its
small end until one knee is inside and lie forward (Figure 16-10).

In rough seas, it may be easier for you to grasp the small end of the raft and, in a prone position, to kick
and pull yourself into the raft. When you are lying face down in the raft, deploy and adjust the sea
anchor. To sit upright, you may have to disconnect one side of the seat kit and roll to that side. Then you
adjust the spray shield. There are two variations of the one-man raft; the improved model incorporates an
inflatable spray shield and floor that provide additional insulation. The spray shield helps keep you dry
and warm in cold oceans and protects you from the sun in the hot climates (Figure 16-11).

Page 170 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Seven-Man Raft
Some multiplace aircraft carry the seven-man raft. It is a component of the survival drop kit (Figure 1612). This raft may inflate upside down and require you to right the raft before boarding. Always work from
the bottle side to prevent injury if the raft turns over. Facing into the wind, the wind provides additional
help in righting the raft. Use the handles on the inside bottom of the raft for boarding (Figure 16-13).

Page 171 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Use the boarding ramp if someone holds down the raft's opposite side. If you don't have help, again work
from the bottle side with the wind at your back to help hold down the raft. Follow the steps outlined in the
note under raft procedures above. Then grasp an oarlock and boarding handle, kick your legs to get your
body prone on the water, and then kick and pull yourself into the raft. If you are weak or injured, you may
partially deflate the raft to make boarding easier (Figure 16-14).

Use the hand pump to keep the buoyancy chambers and cross seat firm. Never overinflate the raft.
Twenty- or Twenty-Five-Man Rafts
You may find 20- or 25-man rafts in multiplace aircraft (Figures 16-15 and 16-16). You will find them in
accessible areas of the fuselage or in raft compartments. Some may be automatically deployed from the
cock-pit, while others may need manual deployment. No matter how the raft lands in the water, it is ready
for boarding. A lanyard connects the accessory kit to the raft and you retrieve the kit by hand. You must
manually inflate the center chamber with the hand pump. Board the 20- or 25-man raft from the aircraft, if
possible. If not, board in the following manner:
•
•
•

Approach the lower boarding ramp.
Remove your life preserver and tether it to yourself so that it trails behind you.
Grasp the boarding handles and kick your legs to get your body into a prone position on the
water's surface; then kick and pull until you are inside the raft.
Page 172 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Page 173 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

An incompletely inflated raft will make boarding easier. Approach the intersection of the raft and ramp,
grasp the upper boarding handle, and swing one leg onto the center of the ramp, as in mounting a horse
(Figure 16-17).

Immediately tighten the equalizer clamp upon entering the raft to prevent deflating the entire raft in case
of a puncture (Figure 16-18).

Use the pump to keep these rafts' chambers and center ring firm. They should be well rounded but not
overly tight.

Sailing Rafts
Rafts do not have keels, therefore, you can't sail them into the wind. However, anyone can sail a raft
downwind. You can successfully sail multiplace (except 20- to 25-man) rafts 10 degrees off from the
direction of the wind. Do not try to sail the raft unless land is near. If you decide to sail and the wind is
blowing toward a desired destination, fully inflate the raft, sit high, take in the sea anchor, rig a sail, and
use an oar as a rudder.
Page 174 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

In a multiplace (except 20- to 25-man) raft, erect a square sail in the bow using the oars and their
extensions as the mast and crossbar (Figure 16-19). You may use a waterproof tarpaulin or parachute
material for the sail. If the raft has no regular mast socket and step, erect the mast by tying it securely to
the front cross seat using braces. Pad the bottom of the mast to prevent it from chafing or punching a
hole through the floor, whether or not there is a socket. The heel of a shoe, with the toe wedged under
the seat, makes a good improvised mast step. Do not secure the comers of the lower edge of the sail.
Hold the lines attached to the comers with your hands so that a gust of wind will not rip the sail, break the
mast, or capsize the raft.

Take every precaution to prevent the raft from turning over. In rough weather, keep the sea anchor away
from the bow. Have the passengers sit low in the raft, with their weight distributed to hold the upwind side
down. To prevent falling out, they should also avoid sitting on the sides of the raft or standing up. Avoid
sudden movements without warning the other passengers. When the sea anchor is not in use, tie it to the
raft and stow it in such a manner that it will hold immediately if the raft capsizes.

Water
Water is your most important need. With it alone, you can live for ten days or longer, depending on your
will to live. When drinking water, moisten your lips, tongue, and throat before swallowing.
Short Water Rations
When you have a limited water supply and you can't replace it by chemical or mechanical means, use
the water efficiently. Protect freshwater supplies from seawater contamination. Keep your body well
Page 175 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

shaded, both from overhead sun and from reflection off the sea surface. Allow ventilation of air; dampen
your clothes during the hottest part of the day. Do not exert yourself. Relax and sleep when possible. Fix
your daily water ration after considering the amount of water you have, the output of solar stills and
desalting kit, and the number and physical condition of your party.
If you don't have water, don't eat. If your water ration is two liters or more per day, eat any part of your
ration or any additional food that you may catch, such as birds, fish, shrimp. The life raft's motion and
anxiety may cause nausea. If you eat when nauseated, you may lose your food immediately. If
nauseated, rest and relax as much as you can, and take only water.
To reduce your loss of water through perspiration, soak your clothes in the sea and wring them out
before putting them on again. Don't overdo this during hot days when no canopy or sun shield is
available. This is a trade-off between cooling and saltwater boils and rashes that will result. Be careful
not to get the bottom of the raft wet.
Watch the clouds and be ready for any chance of showers. Keep the tarpaulin handy for catching water.
If it is encrusted with dried salt, wash it in seawater. Normally, a small amount of seawater mixed with
rain will hardly be noticeable and will not cause any physical reaction. In rough seas you cannot get
uncontaminated fresh water.
At night, secure the tarpaulin like a sunshade, and turn up its edges to collect dew. It is also possible to
collect dew along the sides of the raft using a sponge or cloth. When it rains, drink as much as you can
hold.
Solar Still
When solar stills are available, read the instructions and set them up immediately. Use as many stills as
possible, depending on the number of men in the raft and the amount of sunlight available. Secure solar
stills to the raft with care. This type of solar still only works on flat, calm seas.
Desalting Kits
When desalting kits are available in addition to solar stills, use them only for immediate water needs or
during long overcast periods when you cannot use solar stills. In any event, keep desalting kits and
emergency water stores for periods when you cannot use solar stills or catch rainwater.
Water From Fish
Drink the aqueous fluid found along the spine and in the eyes of large fish. Carefully cut the fish in half to
get the fluid along the spine and suck the eye. If you are so short of water that you need to do this, then
do not drink any of the other body fluids. These other fluids are rich in protein and fat and will use up
more of your reserve water in digestion than they supply.
Sea Ice
In arctic waters, use old sea ice for water. This ice is bluish, has rounded comers, and splinters easily. It
is nearly free of salt. New ice is gray, milky, hard, and salty. Water from icebergs is fresh, but icebergs
are dangerous to approach. Use them as a source of water only in emergencies.
REMEMBER!
Do not drink seawater.
Do not drink urine.
Do not drink alcohol.
Do not smoke.
Do not eat, unless water is available.
Sleep and rest are the best ways of enduring periods of reduced water and food intake. However, make
sure that you have enough shade when napping during the day. If the sea is rough, tie yourself to the
raft, close any cover, and ride out the storm as best you can. Relax is the key word--at least try to relax.

Food Procurement
Page 176 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

In the open sea, fish will be the main food source. There are some poisonous and dangerous ocean fish,
but, in general, when out of sight of land, fish are safe to eat. Nearer the shore there are fish that are
both dangerous and poisonous to eat. There are some fish, such as the red snapper and barracuda, that
are normally edible but poisonous when taken from the waters of atolls and reefs. Flying fish will even
jump into your raft!
Fish
When fishing, do not handle the fishing line with bare hands and never wrap it around your hands or tie it
to a life raft. The salt that adheres to it can make it a sharp cutting edge, an edge dangerous both to the
raft and your hands. Wear gloves, if they are available, or use a cloth to handle fish and to avoid injury
from sharp fins and gill covers.
In warm regions, gut and bleed fish immediately after catching them. Cut fish that you do not eat
immediately into thin, narrow strips and hang them to dry. A well-dried fish stays edible for several days.
Fish not cleaned and dried may spoil in half a day. Fish with dark meat are very prone to decomposition.
If you do not eat them all immediately, do not eat any of the leftovers. Use the leftovers for bait.
Never eat fish that have pale, shiny gills, sunken eyes, flabby skin and flesh, or an unpleasant odor.
Good fish show the opposite characteristics. Sea fish have a saltwater or clean fishy odor. Do not
confuse eels with sea snakes that have an obviously scaly body and strongly compressed, paddleshaped tail. Both eels and sea snakes are edible, but you must handle the latter with care because of
their poisonous bites. The heart, blood, intestinal wall, and liver of most fish are edible. Cook the
intestines. Also edible are the partly digested smaller fish that you may find in the stomachs of large fish.
In addition, sea turtles are edible.
Shark meat is a good source of food whether raw, dried, or cooked. Shark meat spoils very rapidly due to
the high concentration of urea in the blood, therefore, bleed it immediately and soak it in several changes
of water. People prefer some shark species over others. Consider them all edible except the Greenland
shark whose flesh contains high quantities of vitamin A. Do not eat the livers, due to high vitamin A
content.
Fishing Aids
You can use different materials to make fishing aids as described in the following paragraphs:
•

•
•
•

•

Fishing line. Use pieces of tarpaulin or canvas. Unravel the threads and tie them together in short
lengths in groups of three or more threads. Shoelaces and parachute suspension line also work
well.
Fish hooks. No survivor at sea should be without fishing equipment but if you are, improvise
hooks as shown in Chapter 8.
Fish lures. You can fashion lures by attaching a double hook to any shiny piece of metal.
Grapple. Use grapples to hook seaweed. You may shake crabs, shrimp, or small fish out of the
seaweed. These you may eat or use for bait. You may eat seaweed itself, but only when you
have plenty of drinking water. Improvise grapples from wood. Use a heavy piece of wood as the
main shaft, and lash three smaller pieces to the shaft as grapples.
Bait. You can use small fish as bait for larger ones. Scoop the small fish up with a net. If you don't
have a net, make one from cloth of some type. Hold the net under the water and scoop upward.
Use all the guts from birds and fish for bait. When using bait, try to keep it moving in the water to
give it the appearance of being alive.

Helpful Fishing Hints
Your fishing should be successful if you remember the following important hints:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Be extremely careful with fish that have teeth and spines.
Cut a large fish loose rather than risk capsizing the raft. Try to catch small rather than large fish.
Do not puncture your raft with hooks or other sharp instruments.
Do not fish when large sharks are in the area.
Watch for schools of fish; try to move close to these schools.
Fish at night using a light. The light attracts fish.
In the daytime, shade attracts some fish. You may find them under your raft.
Page 177 of 233

FM 21-76

•

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Improvise a spear by tying a knife to an oar blade. This spear can help you catch larger fish, but
you must get them into the raft quickly or they will slip off the blade. Also, tie the knife very
securely or you may lose it.
Always take care of your fishing equipment. Dry your fishing lines, clean and sharpen the hooks,
and do not allow the hooks to stick into the fishing lines.

Birds
As stated in Chapter 8, all birds are edible. Eat any birds you can catch. Sometimes birds may land on
your raft, but usually they are cautious. You may be able to attract some birds by towing a bright piece of
metal behind the raft. This will bring the bird within shooting range, provided you have a firearm.
If a bird lands within your reach, you may be able to catch it. If the birds do not land close enough or land
on the other end of the raft, you may be able to catch them with a bird noose. Bait the center of the
noose and wait for the bird to land. When the bird's feet are in the center of the noose, pull it tight.
Use all parts of the bird. Use the feathers for insulation, the entrails and feet for bait, and so on. Use your
imagination.

Medical Problems Associated With Sea Survival
At sea, you may become seasick, get saltwater sores, or face some of the same medical problems that
occur on land, such as dehydration or sunburn. These problems can become critical if left untreated.
Seasickness
Seasickness is the nausea and vomiting caused by the motion of the raft. It can result in-•
•
•
•
•

Extreme fluid loss and exhaustion.
Loss of the will to survive.
Others becoming seasick.
Attraction of sharks to the raft.
Unclean conditions.

To treat seasickness-•
•
•
•

Wash both the patient and the raft to remove the sight and odor of vomit.
Keep the patient from eating food until his nausea is gone.
Have the patient lie down and rest.
Give the patient seasickness pills if available. If the patient is unable to take the pills orally, insert
them rectally for absorption by the body.
Note: Some survivors have said that erecting a canopy or using the horizon as a focal
point helped overcome seasickness. Others have said that swimming alongside the raft
for short periods helped, but extreme care must be taken if swimming.

Saltwater Sores
These sores result from a break in skin exposed to saltwater for an extended period. The sores may form
scabs and pus. Do not open or drain. Flush the sores with fresh water, if available, and allow to dry.
Apply an antiseptic, if available.
Immersion Rot, Frostbite, and Hypothermia
These problems are similar to those encountered in cold weather environments. Symptoms and
treatment are the same as covered in Chapter 15.
Blindness/Headache
If flame, smoke, or other contaminants get in the eyes, flush them immediately with salt water, then with
fresh water, if available. Apply ointment, if available. Bandage both eyes 18 to 24 hours, or longer if
damage is severe. If the glare from the sky and water causes your eyes to become bloodshot and
Page 178 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

inflamed, bandage them lightly. Try to prevent this problem by wearing sunglasses. Improvise
sunglasses if necessary.
Constipation
This condition is a common problem on a raft. Do not take a laxative, as this will cause further
dehydration. Exercise as much as possible and drink an adequate amount of water, if available.
Difficult Urination
This problem is not unusual and is due mainly to dehydration. It is best not to treat it, as it could cause
further dehydration.
Sunburn
Sunburn is a serious problem in sea survival. Try to prevent sunburn by staying in shade and keeping
your head and skin covered. Use cream or Chap Stick from your first aid kit. Remember, reflection from
the water also causes sunburn.

Sharks
Whether you are in the water or in a boat or raft, you may see many types of sea life around you. Some
may be more dangerous than others. Generally, sharks are the greatest danger to you. Other animals
such as whales, porpoises, and stingrays may look dangerous, but really pose little threat in the open
sea.
Of the many hundreds of shark species, only about 20 species are known to attack man. The most
dangerous are the great white shark, the hammerhead, the mako, and the tiger shark. Other sharks
known to attack man include the gray, blue, lemon, sand, nurse, bull, and oceanic white tip sharks.
Consider any shark longer than 1 meter dangerous.
There are sharks in all oceans and seas of the world. While many live and feed in the depths of the sea,
others hunt near the surface. The sharks living near the surface are the ones you will most likely see.
Their dorsal fins frequently project above the water. Sharks in the tropical and subtropical seas are far
more aggressive than those in temperate waters.
All sharks are basically eating machines. Their normal diet is live animals of any type, and they will strike
at injured or helpless animals. Sight, smell, or sound may guide them to their prey. Sharks have an acute
sense of smell and the smell of blood in the water excites them. They are also very sensitive to any
abnormal vibrations in the water. The struggles of a wounded animal or swimmer, underwater
explosions, or even a fish struggling on a fishline will attract a shark.
Sharks can bite from almost any position; they do not have to turn on their side to bite. The jaws of some
of the larger sharks are so far forward that they can bite floating objects easily without twisting to the
side.
Sharks may hunt alone, but most reports of attacks cite more than one shark present. The smaller sharks
tend to travel in schools and attack in mass. Whenever one of the sharks finds a victim, the other sharks
will quickly join it. Sharks will eat a wounded shark as quickly as their prey.
Sharks feed at all hours of the day and night. Most reported shark contacts and attacks were during
daylight, and many of these have been in the late afternoon. Some of the measures that you can take to
protect yourself against sharks when you are in the water are-•
•

•

Stay with other swimmers. A group can maintain a 360-degree watch. A group can either frighten
or fight off sharks better than one man.
Always watch for sharks. Keep all your clothing on, to include your shoes. Historically, sharks
have attacked the unclothed men in groups first, mainly in the feet. Clothing also protects against
abrasions should the shark brush against you.
Avoid urinating. If you must, only do so in small amounts. Let it dissipate between discharges. If
you must defecate, do so in small amounts and throw it as far away from you as possible. Do the
same if you must vomit.

If a shark attack is imminent while you are in the water, splash and yell just enough to keep the shark at
bay. Sometimes yelling underwater or slapping the water repeatedly will scare the shark away. Conserve
your strength for fighting in case the shark attacks.
Page 179 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

If attacked, kick and strike the shark. Hit the shark on the gills or eyes if possible. If you hit the shark on
the nose, you may injure your hand if it glances off and hits its teeth.
When you are in a raft and see sharks-•
•
•
•
•

Do not fish. If you have hooked a fish, let it go. Do not clean fish in the water.
Do not throw garbage overboard.
Do not let your arms, legs, or equipment hang in the water.
Keep quiet and do not move around.
Bury all dead as soon as possible. If there are many sharks in the area, conduct the burial at
night.

When you are in a raft and a shark attack is imminent, hit the shark with anything you have, except your
hands. You will do more damage to your hands than the shark. If you strike with an oar, be careful not to
lose or break it.

Detecting Land
You should watch carefully for any signs of land. There are many indicators that land is near.
A fixed cumulus cloud in a clear sky or in a sky where all other clouds are moving often hovers over or
slightly downwind from an island.
In the tropics, the reflection of sunlight from shallow lagoons or shelves of coral reefs often causes a
greenish tint in the sky.
In the arctic, light-colored reflections on clouds often indicate ice fields or snow-covered land. These
reflections are quite different from the dark gray ones caused by open water.
Deep water is dark green or dark blue. Lighter color indicates shallow water, which may mean land is
near.
At night, or in fog, mist, or rain, you may detect land by odors and sounds. The musty odor of mangrove
swamps and mud flats carry a long way. You hear the roar of surf long before you see the surf. The
continued cries of seabirds coming from one direction indicate their roosting place on nearby land.
There usually are more birds near land than over the open sea. The direction from which flocks fly at
dawn and to which they fly at dusk may indicate the direction of land. During the day, birds are searching
for food and the direction of flight has no significance.
Mirages occur at any latitude, but they are more likely in the tropics, especially during the middle of the
day. Be careful not to mistake a mirage for nearby land. A mirage disappears or its appearance and
elevation change when viewed from slightly different heights.
You may be able to detect land by the pattern of the waves (refracted) as they approach land (Figure 1620). By traveling with the waves and parallel to the slightly turbulent area marked "X" on the illustration,
you should reach land.

Page 180 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Rafting or Beaching Techniques
Once you have found land, you must get ashore safely. To raft ashore, you can usually use the one-man
raft without danger. However, going ashore in a strong surf is dangerous. Take your time. Select your
landing point carefully. Try not to land when the sun is low and straight in front of you. Try to land on the
lee side of an island or on a point of land jutting out into the water. Keep your eyes open for gaps in the
surf line, and head for them. Avoid coral reefs and rocky cliffs. There are no coral reefs near the mouths
of freshwater streams. Avoid rip currents or strong tidal currents that may carry you far out to sea. Either
signal ashore for help or sail around and look for a sloping beach where the surf is gentle.
If you have to go through the surf to reach shore, take down the mast. Keep your clothes and shoes on
to avoid severe cuts. Adjust and inflate your life vest. Trail the sea anchor over the stem using as much
line as you have. Use the oars or paddles and constantly adjust the sea anchor to keep a strain on the
anchor line. These actions will keep the raft pointed toward shore and prevent the sea from throwing the
stern around and capsizing you. Use the oars or paddles to help ride in on the seaward side of a large
wave.
The surf may be irregular and velocity may vary, so modify your procedure as conditions demand. A
good method of getting through the surf is to have half the men sit on one side of the raft, half on the
other, facing away from each other. When a heavy sea bears down, half should row (pull) toward the sea
until the crest passes; then the other half should row (pull) toward the shore until the next heavy sea
comes along.
Against a strong wind and heavy surf, the raft must have all possible speed to pass rapidly through the
oncoming crest to avoid being turned broadside or thrown end over end. If possible, avoid meeting a
large wave at the moment it breaks.
If in a medium surf with no wind or offshore wind, keep the raft from passing over a wave so rapidly that it
drops suddenly after topping the crest. If the raft turns over in the surf, try to grab hold of it and ride it in.
As the raft nears the beach, ride in on the crest of a large wave. Paddle or row hard and ride in to the
beach as far as you can. Do not jump out of the raft until it has grounded, then quickly get out and beach
it.
If you have a choice, do not land at night. If you have reason to believe that people live on the shore, lay
away from the beach, signal, and wait for the inhabitants to come out and bring you in.
If you encounter sea ice, land only on large, stable floes. Avoid icebergs that may capsize and small
floes or those obviously disintegrating. Use oars and hands to keep the raft from rubbing on the edge of
the ice. Take the raft out of the water and store it well back from the floe's edge. You may be able to use
it for shelter. Keep the raft inflated and ready for use. Any floe may break up without warning.

Swimming Ashore
Page 181 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

If rafting ashore is not possible and you have to swim, wear your shoes and at least one thickness of
clothing. Use the sidestroke or breaststroke to conserve strength.
If the surf is moderate, ride in on the back of a small wave by swimming forward with it. Dive to a shallow
depth to end the ride just before the wave breaks.
In high surf, swim toward shore in the trough between waves. When the seaward wave approaches, face
it and submerge. After it passes, work toward shore in the next trough. If caught in the undertow of a
large wave, push off the bottom or swim to the surface and proceed toward shore as above.
If you must land on a rocky shore, look for a place where the waves rush up onto the rocks. Avoid places
where the waves explode with a high, white spray. Swim slowly when making your approach. You will
need your strength to hold on to the rocks. You should be fully clothed and wear shoes to reduce injury.
After selecting your landing point, advance behind a large wave into the breakers. Face toward shore
and take a sitting position with your feet in front, 60 to 90 centimeters (2 or 3 feet) lower than your head.
This position will let your feet absorb the shock when you land or strike sub-merged boulders or reefs. If
you do not reach shore behind the wave you picked, swim with your hands only. As the next wave
approaches, take a sitting position with your feet forward. Repeat the procedure until you land.
Water is quieter in the lee of a heavy growth of seaweed. Take advantage of such growth. Do not swim
through the seaweed; crawl over the top by grasping the vegetation with overhand movements.
Cross a rocky or coral reef as you would land on a rocky shore. Keep your feet close together and your
knees slightly bent in a relaxed sitting posture to cushion the blows against the coral.

Pickup or Rescue
On sighting rescue craft approaching for pickup (boat, ship, conventional aircraft, or helicopter), quickly
clear any lines (fishing lines, desalting kit lines) or other gear that could cause entanglement during
rescue. Secure all loose items in the raft. Take down canopies and sails to ensure a safer pickup. After
securing all items, put on your helmet, if available. Fully inflate your life preserver. Remain in the raft,
unless otherwise instructed, and remove all equipment except the preservers. If possible, you will receive
help from rescue personnel lowered into the water. Remember, follow all instructions given by the rescue
personnel.
If the helicopter recovery is unassisted, do the following before pickup:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Secure all the loose equipment in the raft, accessory bag, or in pockets.
Deploy the sea anchor, stability bags, and accessory bag.
Partially deflate the raft and fill it with water.
Unsnap the survival kit container from the parachute harness.
Grasp the raft handhold and roll out of the raft.
Allow the recovery device or the cable to ground out on the water's surface.
Maintain the handhold until the recovery device is in your other hand.
Mount the recovery device, avoiding entanglement with the raft.
Signal the hoist operator for pickup.

SEASHORES
Search planes or ships do not always spot a drifting raft or swimmer. You may have to land along the
coast before being rescued. Surviving along the seashore is different from open sea survival. Food and
water are more abundant and shelter is obviously easier to locate and construct.
If you are in friendly territory and decide to travel, it is better to move along the coast than to go inland.
Do not leave the coast except to avoid obstacles (swamps and cliffs) or unless you find a trail that you
know leads to human habitation.
In time of war, remember that the enemy patrols most coastlines. These patrols may cause problems for
you if you land on a hostile shore. You will have extremely limited travel options in this situation. Avoid all
contact with other humans, and make every effort to cover all tracks you leave on the shore.

Special Health Hazards
Page 182 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Coral, poisonous and aggressive fish, crocodiles, sea urchins, sea biscuits, sponges, anemones, and
tides and undertow pose special health hazards.
Coral
Coral, dead or alive, can inflict painful cuts. There are hundreds of water hazards that can cause deep
puncture wounds, severe bleeding, and the danger of infection. Clean all coral cuts thoroughly. Do not
use iodine to disinfect any coral cuts. Some coral polyps feed on iodine and may grow inside your flesh if
you use iodine.
Poisonous Fish
Many reef fish have toxic flesh. For some species, the flesh is always poisonous, for other species, only
at certain times of the year. The poisons are present in all parts of the fish, but especially in the liver,
intestines, and eggs.
Fish toxins are water soluble--no amount of cooking will neutralize them. They are tasteless, therefore
the standard edibility tests are use-less. Birds are least susceptible to the poisons. Therefore, do not
think that because a bird can eat a fish, it is a safe species for you to eat.
The toxins will produce a numbness of the lips, tongue, toes, and tips of the fingers, severe itching, and a
clear reversal of temperature sensations. Cold items appear hot and hot items cold. There will probably
also be nausea, vomiting, loss of speech, dizziness, and a paralysis that eventually brings death.
In addition to fish with poisonous flesh, there are those that are dangerous to touch. Many stingrays have
a poisonous barb in their tail. There are also species that can deliver an electric shock. Some reef fish,
such as stonefish and toadfish, have venomous spines that can cause very painful although seldom fatal
injuries. The venom from these spines causes a burning sensation or even an agonizing pain that is out
of proportion to the apparent severity of the wound. Jellyfish, while not usually fatal, can inflict a very
painful sting if it touches you with its tentacles. See Chapter 11 and Appendix F for details on particularly
dangerous fish of the sea and seashore.
Aggressive Fish
You should also avoid some ferocious fish. The bold and inquisitive barracuda has attacked men wearing
shiny objects. It may charge lights or shiny objects at night. The sea bass, which can grow to 1.7 meters,
is another fish to avoid. The moray eel, which has many sharp teeth and grows to 1.5 meters, can also
be aggressive if disturbed.
Sea Snakes
Sea snakes are venomous and sometimes found in mid ocean. They are unlikely to bite unless
provoked. Avoid them.
Crocodiles
Crocodiles inhabit tropical saltwater bays and mangrove-bordered estuaries and range up to 65
kilometers into the open sea. Few remain near inhabited areas. You commonly find crocodiles in the
remote areas of the East Indies and Southeast Asia. Consider specimens over 1 meter long dangerous,
especially females guarding their nests. Crocodile meat is an excellent source of food when available.
Sea Urchins, Sea Biscuits, Sponges, and Anemones
These animals can cause extreme, though seldom fatal, pain. Usually found in tropical shallow water
near coral formations, sea urchins resemble small, round porcupines. If stepped on, they slip fine
needles of lime or silica into the skin, where they break off and fester. If possible, remove the spines and
treat the injury for infection. The other animals mentioned inflict injury similarly.
Tides and Undertow
These are another hazard to contend with. If caught in a large wave's undertow, push off the bottom or
swim to the surface and proceed shoreward in a trough between waves. Do not fight against the pull of
the undertow. Swim with it or perpendicular to it until it loses strength, then swim for shore.

Food
Obtaining food along a seashore should not present a problem. There are many types of seaweed and
other plants you can easily find and eat. See Chapter 9 and Appendix B for a discussion of these plants.
There is a great variety of animal life that can supply your need for food in this type of survival situation.
Mollusks
Page 183 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Mussels, limpets, clams, sea snails, octopuses, squids, and sea slugs are all edible. Shellfish will usually
supply most of the protein eaten by coastal survivors. Avoid the blue-ringed octopus and cone shells
(described in Chapter 11 and Appendix F). Also beware of "red tides" that make mollusks poisonous.
Apply the edibility test on each species before eating.
Worms
Coastal worms are generally edible, but it is better to use them for fish bait. Avoid bristle worms that look
like fuzzy caterpillars. Also avoid tubeworms that have sharp-edged tubes. Arrowworms, alias
amphioxus, are not true worms. You find them in the sand and are excellent either fresh or dried.
Crabs, Lobsters, and Barnacles
These animals are seldom dangerous to man and are an excellent food source. The pincers of larger
crabs or lobsters can crush a man's finger. Many species have spines on their shells, making it
preferable to wear gloves when catching them. Barnacles can cause scrapes or cuts and are difficult to
detach from their anchor, but the larger species are an excellent food source.
Sea Urchins
These are common and can cause painful injuries when stepped on or touched. They are also a good
source of food. Handle them with gloves, and remove all spines.
Sea Cucumbers
This animal is an important food source in the Indo-Pacific regions. Use them whole after evisceration or
remove the five muscular strips that run the length of its body. Eat them smoked, pickled, or cooked.

Page 184 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

CHAPTER 17 - EXPEDIENT WATER CROSSINGS

In a survival situation, you may have to cross a water obstacle. It may be in the form of a
river, a stream, a lake, a bog, quicksand, quagmire, or muskeg. Even in the desert, flash
floods occur, making streams an obstacle. Whatever it is, you need to know how to cross
it safely.

RIVERS AND STREAMS
You can apply almost every description to rivers and streams. They may be shallow or deep, slow or fast
moving, narrow or wide. Before you try to cross a river or stream, develop a good plan.
Your first step is to look for a high place from which you can get a good view of the river or stream. From
this place, you can look for a place to cross. If there is no high place, climb a tree. Good crossing
locations include-•
•
•

A level stretch where it breaks into several channels. Two or three narrow channels are usually
easier to cross than a wide river.
A shallow bank or sandbar. If possible, select a point upstream from the bank or sandbar so that
the current will carry you to it if you lose your footing.
A course across the river that leads downstream so that you will cross the current at about a 45degree angle.

The following areas possess potential hazards; avoid them, if possible:
•
•
•
•

•

Obstacles on the opposite side of the river that might hinder your travel. Try to select the spot
from which travel will be the safest and easiest.
A ledge of rocks that crosses the river. This often indicates dangerous rapids or canyons.
A deep or rapid waterfall or a deep channel. Never try to ford a stream directly above or even
close to such hazards.
Rocky places. You may sustain serious injuries from slipping or falling on rocks. Usually,
submerged rocks are very slick, making balance extremely difficult. An occasional rock that
breaks the current, however, may help you.
An estuary of a river. An estuary is normally wide, has strong currents, and is subject to tides.
These tides can influence some rivers many kilometers from their mouths. Go back upstream to
an easier crossing site.
Eddies. An eddy can produce a powerful backward pull downstream of the obstruction causing
the eddy and pull you under the surface.

The depth of a fordable river or stream is no deterrent if you can keep your footing. In fact, deep water
sometimes runs more slowly and is therefore safer than fast-moving shallow water. You can always dry
your clothes later, or if necessary, you can make a raft to carry your clothing and equipment across the
river.
Page 185 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

You must not try to swim or wade across a stream or river when the water is at very low temperatures.
This swim could be fatal. Try to make a raft of some type. Wade across if you can get only your feet wet.
Dry them vigorously as soon as you reach the other bank.

RAPIDS
If necessary, you can safely cross a deep, swift river or rapids. To swim across a deep, swift river, swim
with the current, never fight it. Try to keep your body horizontal to the water. This will reduce the danger
of being pulled under.
In fast, shallow rapids, lie on your back, feet pointing downstream, finning your hands alongside your
hips. This action will increase buoyancy and help you steer away from obstacles. Keep your feet up to
avoid getting them bruised or caught by rocks.
In deep rapids, lie on your stomach, head downstream, angling toward the shore whenever you can.
Watch for obstacles and be careful of backwater eddies and converging currents, as they often contain
dangerous swirls. Converging currents occur where new watercourses enter the river or where water has
been diverted around large obstacles such as small islands.
To ford a swift, treacherous stream, apply the following steps:
•
•

•

Remove your pants and shirt to lessen the water's pull on you. Keep your footgear on to protect
your feet and ankles from rocks. It will also provide you with firmer footing.
Tie your pants and other articles to the top of your rucksack or in a bundle, if you have no pack.
This way, if you have to release your equipment, all your articles will be together. It is easier to
find one large pack than to find several small items.
Carry your pack well up on your shoulders and be sure you can easily remove it, if necessary.
Not being able to get a pack off quickly enough can drag even the strongest swimmers under.

Find a strong pole about 7.5 centimeters in diameter and 2.1 to 2.4 meters long to help you ford the
stream. Grasp the pole and plant it firmly on your upstream side to break the current. Plant your feet
firmly with each step, and move the pole forward a little downstream from its previous position, but still
upstream from you. With your next step, place your foot below the pole. Keep the pole well slanted so
that the force of the current keeps the pole against your shoulder (Figure 17-1).
•

Cross the stream so that you will cross the downstream current at a 45-degree angle.

Using this method, you can safely cross currents usually too strong for one person to stand against. Do
not concern yourself about your pack's weight, as the weight will help rather than hinder you in fording
the stream.
If there are other people with you, cross the stream together. Ensure that everyone has prepared their
pack and clothing as outlined above. Position the heaviest person on the downstream end of the pole
and the lightest on the upstream end. In using this method, the upstream person breaks the current, and
those below can move with relative ease in the eddy formed by the upstream person. If the upstream
Page 186 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

person gets temporarily swept off his feet, the others can hold steady while he regains his footing (Figure
17-2).

If you have three or more people and a rope available, you can use the technique shown in Figure 17-3
to cross the stream. The length of the rope must be three times the width of the stream.

Page 187 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

RAFTS
If you have two ponchos, you can construct a brush raft or an Australian poncho raft. With either of these
rafts, you can safely float your equipment across a slow-moving stream or river.

Brush Raft
The brush raft, if properly constructed, will support about 115 kilograms. To construct it, use ponchos,
fresh green brush, two small saplings, and rope or vine as follows (Figure 17-4):
•
•
•

•

Push the hood of each poncho to the inner side and tightly tie off the necks using the drawstrings.
Attach the ropes or vines at the corner and side grommets of each poncho. Make sure they are
long enough to cross to and tie with the others attached at the opposite corner or side.
Spread one poncho on the ground with the inner side up. Pile fresh, green brush (no thick
branches) on the poncho until the brush stack is about 45 centimeters high. Pull the drawstring up
through the center of the brush stack.
Make an X-frame from two small saplings and place it on top of the brush stack. Tie the X-frame
securely in place with the poncho drawstring.
Page 188 of 233

FM 21-76

•
•
•
•

•

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Pile another 45 centimeters of brush on top of the X-frame, then compress the brush slightly.
Pull the poncho sides up around the brush and, using the ropes or vines attached to the comer or
side grommets, tie them diagonally from comer to corner and from side to side.
Spread the second poncho, inner side up, next to the brush bundle.
Roll the brush bundle onto the second poncho so that the tied side is down. Tie the second
poncho around the brush bundle in the same manner as you tied the first poncho around the
brush.
Place it in the water with the tied side of the second poncho facing up.

Australian Poncho Raft
If you do not have time to gather brush for a brush raft, you can make an Australian poncho raft. This
raft, although more waterproof than the poncho brush raft, will only float about 35 kilograms of
equipment. To construct this raft, use two ponchos, two rucksacks, two 1.2-meter poles or branches, and
ropes, vines, bootlaces, or comparable material as follows (Figure 17-5):
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

•

Push the hood of each poncho to the inner side and tightly tie off the necks using the drawstrings.
Spread one poncho on the ground with the inner side up. Place and center the two 1.2-meter
poles on the poncho about 45 centimeters apart.
Place your rucksacks or packs or other equipment between the poles. Also place other items that
you want to keep dry between the poles. Snap the poncho sides together.
Use your buddy's help to complete the raft. Hold the snapped portion of the poncho in the air and
roll it tightly down to the equipment. Make sure you roll the full width of the poncho.
Twist the ends of the roll to form pigtails in opposite directions. Fold the pigtails over the bundle
and tie them securely in place using ropes, bootlaces, or vines.
Spread the second poncho on the ground, inner side up. If you need more buoyancy, place some
fresh green brush on this poncho.
Place the equipment bundle, tied side down, on the center of the second poncho. Wrap the
second poncho around the equipment bundle following the same procedure you used for
wrapping the equipment in the first poncho.
Tie ropes, bootlaces, vines, or other binding material around the raft about 30 centimeters from
the end of each pigtail. Place and secure weapons on top of the raft.
Page 189 of 233

FM 21-76

•

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Tie one end of a rope to an empty canteen and the other end to the raft. This will help you to tow
the raft.

Poncho Donut Raft
Another type of raft is the poncho donut raft. It takes more time to construct than the brush raft or
Australian poncho raft, but it is effective. To construct it, use one poncho, small saplings, willow or vines,
and rope, bootlaces, or other binding material (Figure 17-6) as follows:
•
•
•
•
•
•

Make a framework circle by placing several stakes in the ground that roughly outline an inner and
outer circle.
Using young saplings, willow, or vines, construct a donut ring within the circles of stakes.
Wrap several pieces of cordage around the donut ring about 30 to 60 centimeters apart and tie
them securely.
Push the poncho's hood to the inner side and tightly tie off the neck using the drawstring.
Place the poncho on the ground, inner side up. Place the donut ring on the center of the poncho.
Wrap the poncho up and over the donut ring and tie off each grommet on the poncho to the ring.
Tie one end of a rope to an empty canteen and the other end to the raft. This rope will help you to
tow the raft.

When launching any of the above rafts, take care not to puncture or tear it by dragging it on the ground.
Before you start to cross the river or stream, let the raft lay on the water a few minutes to ensure that it
floats.
Page 190 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

If the river is too deep to ford, push the raft in front of you while you are swimming. The design of the
above rafts does not allow them to carry a person's full body weight. Use them as a float to get you and
your equipment safely across the river or stream.
Be sure to check the water temperature before trying to cross a river or water obstacle. If the water is
extremely cold and you are unable to find a shallow fording place in the river, do not try to ford it. Devise
other means for crossing. For instance, you might improvise a bridge by felling a tree over the river. Or
you might build a raft large enough to carry you and your equipment. For this, however, you will need an
axe, a knife, a rope or vines, and time.

Log Raft
You can make a raft using any dry, dead, standing trees for logs. However, spruce trees found in polar
and subpolar regions make the best rafts. A simple method for making a raft is to use pressure bars
lashed securely at each end of the raft to hold the logs together (Figure 17-7).

FLOTATION DEVICES
If the water is warm enough for swimming and you do not have the time or materials to construct one of
the poncho-type rafts, you can use various flotation devices to negotiate the water obstacle. Some items
you can use for flotation devices are-•

Trousers. Knot each trouser leg at the bottom and close the fly. With both hands, grasp the
waistband at the sides and swing the trousers in the air to trap air in each leg. Quickly press the
sides of the waistband together and hold it underwater so that the air will not escape. You now
have water wings to keep you afloat as you cross the body of water.
Note: Wet the trousers before inflating to trap the air better You may have to reinflate the
trousers several times when crossing a large body of water.

•

Empty containers. Lash together her empty gas cans, water jugs, ammo cans, boxes, or other
items that will trap or hold air. Use them as water wings. Use this type of flotation device only in a
slow-moving river or stream.
Plastic bags and ponchos. Fill two or more plastic bags with air and secure them together at the
opening. Use your poncho and roll green vegetation tightly inside it so that you have a roll at least
20 centimeters in diameter. Tie the ends of the roll securely. You can wear it around your waist or
across one shoulder and under the opposite arm.

Logs. Use a stranded drift log if one is available, or find a log near the water to use as a float. Be sure to
test the log before starting to cross. Some tree logs, palm for example, will sink even when the wood is
dead. Another method is to tie two logs about 60 centimeters apart. Sit between the logs with your back
against one and your legs over the other (Figure 17-8).
Page 191 of 233

FM 21-76

•

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Cattails. Gather stalks of cattails and tie them in a bundle 25 centimeters or more in diameter.
The many air cells in each stalk cause a stalk to float until it rots. Test the cattail bundle to be
sure it will support your weight before trying to cross a body of water.

There are many other flotation devices that you can devise by using some imagination. Just make sure
to test the device before trying to use it.

OTHER WATER OBSTACLES
Other water obstacles that you may face are bogs, quagmire, muskeg, or quicksand. Do not try to walk
across these. Trying to lift your feet while standing upright will make you sink deeper. Try to bypass
these obstacles. If you are unable to bypass them, you may be able to bridge them using logs, branches,
or foliage.
A way to cross a bog is to lie face down, with your arms and legs spread. Use a flotation device or form
pockets of air in your clothing. Swim or pull your way across moving slowly and trying to keep your body
horizontal.
In swamps, the areas that have vegetation are usually firm enough to support your weight. However,
vegetation will usually not be present in open mud or water areas. If you are an average swimmer,
however, you should have no problem swimming, crawling, or pulling your way through miles of bog or
swamp.
Quicksand is a mixture of sand and water that forms a shifting mass. It yields easily to pressure and
sucks down and engulfs objects resting on its surface. It varies in depth and is usually localized.
Quicksand commonly occurs on flat shores, in silt-choked rivers with shifting watercourses, and near the
mouths of large rivers. If you are uncertain whether a sandy area is quicksand, toss a small stone on it.
The stone will sink in quicksand. Although quicksand has more suction than mud or muck, you can cross
it just as you would cross a bog. Lie face down, spread your arms and legs, and move slowly across.

VEGETATION OBSTACLES
Some water areas you must cross may have underwater and floating plants that will make swimming
difficult. However, you can swim through relatively dense vegetation if you remain calm and do not thrash
about. Stay as near the surface as possible and use the breaststroke with shallow leg and arm motion.
Remove the plants around you as you would clothing. When you get tired, float or swim on your back
until you have rested enough to continue with the breaststroke.
The mangrove swamp is another type of obstacle that occurs along tropical coastlines. Mangrove trees
or shrubs throw out many prop roots that form dense masses. To get through a mangrove swamp, wait
for low tide. If you are on the inland side, look for a narrow grove of trees and work your way seaward
through these. You can also try to find the bed of a waterway or creek through the trees and follow it to
the sea. If you are on the seaward side, work inland along streams or channels. Be on the lookout for
crocodiles that you find along channels and in shallow water. If there are any near you, leave the water
and scramble over the mangrove roots. While crossing a mangrove swamp, it is possible to gather food
from tidal pools or tree roots.
To cross a large swamp area, construct some type of raft.
Page 192 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Page 193 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

CHAPTER 18 - FIELD-EXPEDIENT DIRECTION FINDING

In a survival situation, you will be extremely fortunate if you happen to have a map and
compass. If you do have these two pieces of equipment, you will most likely be able to
move toward help. If you are not proficient in using a map and compass, you must take
the steps to gain this skill.
There are several methods by which you can determine direction by using the sun and the
stars. These methods, however, will give you only a general direction. You can come up
with a more nearly true direction if you know the terrain of the territory or country.
You must learn all you can about the terrain of the country or territory to which you or your unit may be
sent, especially any prominent features or landmarks. This knowledge of the terrain together with using
the methods explained below will let you come up with fairly true directions to help you navigate.

USING THE SUN AND SHADOWS
The earth's relationship to the sun can help you to determine direction on earth. The sun always rises in
the east and sets in the west, but not exactly due east or due west. There is also some seasonal
variation. In the northern hemisphere, the sun will be due south when at its highest point in the sky, or
when an object casts no appreciable shadow. In the southern hemisphere, this same noonday sun will
mark due north. In the northern hemisphere, shadows will move clockwise. Shadows will move
counterclockwise in the southern hemisphere. With practice, you can use shadows to determine both
direction and time of day. The shadow methods used for direction finding are the shadow-tip and watch
methods.

Shadow-Tip Methods
In the first shadow-tip method, find a straight stick 1 meter long, and a level spot free of brush on which
the stick will cast a definite shadow. This method is simple and accurate and consists of four steps:
•

•
•
•

Step 1. Place the stick or branch into the ground at a level spot where it will cast a distinctive
shadow. Mark the shadow's tip with a stone, twig, or other means. This first shadow mark is
always west--everywhere on earth.
Step 2. Wait 10 to 15 minutes until the shadow tip moves a few centimeters. Mark the shadow
tip's new position in the same way as the first.
Step 3. Draw a straight line through the two marks to obtain an approximate east-west line.
Step 4. Stand with the first mark (west) to your left and the second mark to your right--you are
now facing north. This fact is true everywhere on earth.

Page 194 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

An alternate method is more accurate but requires more time. Set up your shadow stick and mark the
first shadow in the morning. Use a piece of string to draw a clean arc through this mark and around the
stick. At midday, the shadow will shrink and disappear. In the afternoon, it will lengthen again and at the
point where it touches the arc, make a second mark. Draw a line through the two marks to get an
accurate east-west line (see Figure 18-1).

The Watch Method
You can also determine direction using a common or analog watch--one that has hands. The direction
will be accurate if you are using true local time, without any changes for daylight savings time.
Remember, the further you are from the equator, the more accurate this method will be. If you only have
a digital watch, you can overcome this obstacle. Quickly draw a watch on a circle of paper with the
correct time on it and use it to determine your direction at that time.
In the northern hemisphere, hold the watch horizontal and point the hour hand at the sun. Bisect the
angle between the hour hand and the 12 o'clock mark to get the north-south line (Figure 18-2). If there is
any doubt as to which end of the line is north, remember that the sun rises in the east, sets in the west,
and is due south at noon. The sun is in the east before noon and in the west after noon.

Page 195 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Note: If your watch is set on daylight savings time, use the midway point between the hour
hand and 1 o'clock to determine the north-south line.

In the southern hemisphere, point the watch's 12 o'clock mark toward the sun and a midpoint halfway
between 12 and the hour hand will give you the north-south line (Figure 18-2).

USING THE MOON
Because the moon has no light of its own, we can only see it when it reflects the sun's light. As it orbits
the earth on its 28-day circuit, the shape of the reflected light varies according to its position. We say
there is a new moon or no moon when it is on the opposite side of the earth from the sun. Then, as it
moves away from the earth's shadow, it begins to reflect light from its right side and waxes to become a
full moon before waning, or losing shape, to appear as a sliver on the left side. You can use this
information to identify direction.
If the moon rises before the sun has set, the illuminated side will be the west. If the moon rises after
midnight, the illuminated side will be the east. This obvious discovery provides us with a rough east-west
reference during the night.

USING THE STARS
Your location in the Northern or Southern Hemisphere determines which constellation you use to
determine your north or south direction.

The Northern Sky
The main constellations to learn are the Ursa Major, also known as the Big Dipper or the Plow, and
Cassiopeia (Figure 18-3). Neither of these constellations ever sets. They are always visible on a clear
night. Use them to locate Polaris, also known as the polestar or the North Star. The North Star forms part
of the Little Dipper handle and can be confused with the Big Dipper. Prevent confusion by using both the
Big Dipper and Cassiopeia together. The Big Dipper and Cassiopeia are always directly opposite each.
other and rotate counterclockwise around Polaris, with Polaris in the center. The Big Dipper is a seven
star constellation in the shape of a dipper. The two stars forming the outer lip of this dipper are the
"pointer stars" because they point to the North Star. Mentally draw a line from the outer bottom star to the
outer top star of the Big Dipper's bucket. Extend this line about five times the distance between the
pointer stars. You will find the North Star along this line.

Page 196 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Cassiopeia has five stars that form a shape like a "W" on its side. The North Star is straight out from
Cassiopeia's center star.
After locating the North Star, locate the North Pole or true north by drawing an imaginary line directly to
the earth.

The Southern Sky
Because there is no star bright enough to be easily recognized near the south celestial pole, a
constellation known as the Southern Cross is used as a signpost to the South (Figure 18-4). The
Southern Cross or Crux has five stars. Its four brightest stars form a cross that tilts to one side. The two
stars that make up the cross's long axis are the pointer stars. To determine south, imagine a distance
five times the distance between These stars and the point where this imaginary line ends is in the
general direction of south. Look down to the horizon from this imaginary point and select a landmark to
steer by. In a static survival situation, you can fix this location in daylight if you drive stakes in the ground
at night to point the way.

Page 197 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

MAKING IMPROVISED COMPASSES
You can construct improvised compasses using a piece of ferrous metal that can be needle shaped or a
flat double-edged razor blade and a piece of nonmetallic string or long hair from which to suspend it. You
can magnetize or polarize the metal by slowly stroking it in one direction on a piece of silk or carefully
through your hair using deliberate strokes. You can also polarize metal by stroking it repeatedly at one
end with a magnet. Always rub in one direction only. If you have a battery and some electric wire, you
can polarize the metal electrically. The wire should be insulated. If not insulated, wrap the metal object in
a single, thin strip of paper to prevent contact. The battery must be a minimum of 2 volts. Form a coil with
the electric wire and touch its ends to the battery's terminals. Repeatedly insert one end of the metal
object in and out of the coil. The needle will become an electromagnet. When suspended from a piece of
nonmetallic string, or floated on a small piece of wood in water, it will align itself with a north-south line.
You can construct a more elaborate improvised compass using a sewing needle or thin metallic object, a
nonmetallic container (for example, a plastic dip container), its lid with the center cut out and
waterproofed, and the silver tip from a pen. To construct this compass, take an ordinary sewing needle
and break in half. One half will form your direction pointer and the other will act as the pivot point. Push
the portion used as the pivot point through the bottom center of your container; this portion should be
flush on the bottom and not interfere with the lid. Attach the center of the other portion (the pointer) of the
needle on the pen's silver tip using glue, tree sap, or melted plastic. Magnetize one end of the pointer
and rest it on the pivot point.

OTHER MEANS OF DETERMINING DIRECTION
The old saying about using moss on a tree to indicate north is not accurate because moss grows
completely around some trees. Actually, growth is more lush on the side of the tree facing the south in
the Northern Hemisphere and vice versa in the Southern Hemisphere. If there are several felled trees
around for comparison, look at the stumps. Growth is more vigorous on the side toward the equator and
the tree growth rings will be more widely spaced. On the other hand, the tree growth rings will be closer
together on the side toward the poles.
Wind direction may be helpful in some instances where there are prevailing directions and you know
what they are.
Recognizing the differences between vegetation and moisture patterns on north- and south-facing slopes
can aid in determining direction. In the northern hemisphere, north-facing slopes receive less sun than
Page 198 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

south-facing slopes and are therefore cooler and damper. In the summer, north-facing slopes retain
patches of snow. In the winter, the trees and open areas on south-facing slopes are the first to lose their
snow, and ground snowpack is shallower.

Page 199 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

CHAPTER 19 - SIGNALING TECHNIQUES

One of your first concerns when you find yourself in a survival situation is to communicate
with your friends or allies. Generally, communication is the giving and receiving of
information. As a survivor, you must get your rescuer's attention first, and second, send a
message your rescuer understands. Some attention-getters are man-made geometric
patterns such as straight lines, circles, triangles, or X's displayed in uninhabited areas; a
large fire or flash of light; a large, bright object moving slowly; or contrast, whether from
color or shadows. The type of signal used will depend on your environment and the
enemy situation.

APPLICATION
If in a noncombat situation, you need to find the largest available clear and flat area on the highest
possible terrain. Use as obvious a signal as you can create. On the other hand, you will have to be more
discreet in combat situations. You do not want to signal and attract the enemy. Pick an area that is visible
from the air, but ensure there are hiding places nearby. Try to have a hill or other object between the
signal site and the enemy to mask your signal from the enemy. Perform a thorough reconnaissance of
the area to ensure there are no enemy forces nearby.
Whatever signaling technique or device you plan to use, know how to use it and be ready to put it into
operation on short notice. If possible, avoid using signals or signaling techniques that can physically
endanger you. Keep in mind that signals to your friends may alert the enemy of your presence and
location. Before signaling, carefully weigh your rescue chances by friends against the danger of capture
by the enemy.
A radio is probably the surest and quickest way to let others know where you are and to let you receive
their messages. Become familiar with the radios in your unit. Learn how to operate them and how to
send and receive messages.
You will find descriptions of other signaling techniques, devices, and articles you can use. Learn how to
use them. Think of ways in which you can adapt or change them for different environments. Practice
using these signaling techniques, devices, and articles before you need them. Planned, prearranged
signaling techniques may improve your chance of rescue.

MEANS FOR SIGNALING
There are two main ways to get attention or to communicate--visual and audio. The means you use will
depend on your situation and the material you have available. Whatever the means, always have visual
and audio signals ready for use.

Visual Signals
These signals are materials or equipment you use to make your presence known to rescuers.
Fire
Page 200 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

During darkness, fire is the most effective visual means for signaling. Build three fires in a triangle (the
international distress signal) or in a straight line with about 25 meters between the fires. Build them as
soon as time and the situation permit and protect them until you need them. If you are alone, maintaining
three fires may be difficult. If so, maintain one signal fire.
When constructing signal fires, consider your geographic location. If in a jungle, find a natural clearing or
the edge of a stream where you can build fires that the jungle foliage will not hide. You may even have to
clear an area. If in a snow-covered area, you may have to clear the ground of snow or make a platform
on which to build the fire so that melting snow will not extinguish it.
A burning tree (tree torch) is another way to attract attention (Figure 19-1). You can set pitch-bearing
trees afire, even when green. You can get other types of trees to burn by placing dry wood in the lower
branches and igniting it so that the flames flare up and ignite the foliage. Before the primary tree is
consumed, cut and add more small green trees to the fire to produce more smoke. Always select an
isolated tree so that you do not start a forest fire and endanger yourself.

Smoke
During daylight, build a smoke generator and use smoke to gain attention (Figure 19-2). The international
distress signal is three columns of smoke. Try to create a color of smoke that contrasts with the
background; dark smoke against a light background and vice versa. If you practically smother a large fire
with green leaves, moss, or a little water, the fire will produce white smoke. If you add rubber or oilsoaked rags to a fire, you will get black smoke.

Page 201 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

In a desert environment, smoke hangs close to the ground, but a pilot can spot it in open desert terrain.
Smoke signals are effective only on comparatively calm, clear days. High winds, rain, or snow disperse
smoke, lessening its chances of being seen.
Smoke Grenades
If you have smoke grenades with you, use them in the same pattern as described for fires. Keep them
dry so that they will work when you need them. Take care not to ignite the vegetation in the area when
you use them.
Pen Flares
These flares are part of an aviator's survival vest. The device consists of a pen-shaped gun with a flare
attached by a nylon cord. When fired, the pen flare sounds like a pistol shot and fires the flare about 150
meters high. It is about 3 centimeters in diameter.
To have the pen flare ready for immediate use, take it out of its wrapper, attach the flare, leave the gun
uncocked, and wear it on a cord or chain around your neck. Be ready to fire it in front of search aircraft
and be ready with a secondary signal. Also, be ready to take cover in case the pilot mistakes the flare for
enemy fire.
Tracer Ammunition
You may use rifle or pistol tracer ammunition to signal search aircraft. Do not fire the ammunition in front
of the aircraft. As with pen flares, be ready to take cover if the pilot mistakes your tracers for enemy fire.
Star Clusters
Red is the international distress color; therefore, use a red star cluster whenever possible. Any color,
however, will let your rescuers know where you are. Star clusters reach a height of 200 to 215 meters,
burn an average of 6 to 10 seconds, and descend at a rate of 14 meters per second.
Star Parachute Flares
Page 202 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

These flares reach a height of 200 to 215 meters and descend at a rate of 2.1 meters per second. The
M126 (red) burns about 50 seconds and the M127 (white) about 25 seconds. At night you can see these
flares at 48 to 56 kilometers.
Mirrors or Shiny Objects
On a sunny day, a mirror is your best signaling device. If you don't have a mirror, polish your canteen
cup, your belt buckle, or a similar object that will reflect the sun's rays. Direct the flashes in one area so
that they are secure from enemy observation. Practice using a mirror or shiny object for signaling now;
do not wait until you need it. If you have an MK-3 signal mirror, follow the instructions on its back (Figure
19-3).

Wear the signal mirror on a cord or chain around your neck so that it is ready for immediate use.
However, be sure the glass side is against your body so that it will not flash; the enemy can see the
flash.
CAUTION
Do not flash a signal mirror rapidly because a pilot may mistake the flashes for enemy fire. Do not direct
the beam in the aircraft's cockpit for more than a few seconds as it may blind the pilot.
Haze, ground fog, and mirages may make it hard for a pilot to spot signals from a flashing object. So, if
possible, get to the highest point in your area when signaling. If you can't determine the aircraft's
location, flash your signal in the direction of the aircraft noise.
Note: Pilots have reported seeing mirror flashes up to 160 kilometers away under ideal
conditions.
Figures 19-4 and 19-5 show methods of aiming a signal mirror for signaling.

Page 203 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Flashlight or Strobe Light
At night you can use a flashlight or a strobe light to send an SOS to an aircraft. When using a strobe
light, take care to prevent the pilot from mistaking it for incoming ground fire. The strobe light flashes 60
times per minute. Some strobe lights have infrared covers and lenses. Blue flash collimators are also
available for strobe lights.
VS-17 Panel
During daylight you can use a VS-17 panel to signal. Place the orange side up as it is easier to see from
the air than the violet side. Flashing the panel will make it easier for the aircrew to spot. You can use any
bright orange or violet cloth as a substitute for the VS-17.
Clothing
Spreading clothing on the ground or in the top of a tree is another way to signal. Select articles whose
color will contrast with the natural surroundings. Arrange them in a large geometric pattern to make them
more likely to attract attention.
Natural Material
If you lack other means, you can use natural materials to form a symbol or message that can be seen
from the air. Build mounds that cast shadows; you can use brush, foliage of any type, rocks, or snow
blocks.
In snow-covered areas, tramp the snow to form letters or symbols and fill the depression with contrasting
material (twigs or branches). In sand, use boulders, vegetation, or seaweed to form a symbol or
message. In brush-covered areas, cut out patterns in the vegetation or sear the ground. In tundra, dig
trenches or turn the sod upside down.
In any terrain, use contrasting materials that will make the symbols visible to the aircrews.
Sea Dye Markers
Page 204 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

All Army aircraft involved in operations near or over water will normally carry a water survival kit that
contains sea dye markers. If you are in a water survival situation, use sea dye markers during daylight to
indicate your location. These spots of dye stay conspicuous for about 3 hours, except in very rough seas.
Use them only if you are in a friendly area. Keep the markers wrapped until you are ready to use them.
Use them only when you hear or sight an aircraft. Sea dye markers are also very effective on snowcovered ground; use them to write distress code letters.

Audio Signals
Radios, whistles, and gunshots are some of the methods you can use to signal your presence to
rescuers.
Radio Equipment
The AN/PRC-90 survival radio is a part of the Army aviator's survival vest. The AN/PRC-112 will
eventually replace the AN/PRC-90. Both radios can transmit either tone or voice. Any other type of Army
radio can do the same. The ranges of the different radios vary depending on the altitude of the receiving
aircraft, terrain, vegetation density, weather, battery strength, type of radio, and interference. To obtain
maximum performance from radios, use the following procedures:
•
•
•
•
•
•

Try to transmit only in clear, unobstructed terrain. Since radios are line-of-sight communications
devices, any terrain between the radio and the receiver will block the signal.
Keep the antenna at right angles to the rescuing aircraft. There is no signal from the tip of the
antenna.
If the radio has tone capability, place it upright on a flat, elevated surface so that you can perform
other survival tasks.
Never let the antenna touch your clothing, body, foliage, or the ground. Such contact greatly
reduces the range of the signal.
Conserve battery power. Turn the radio off when you are not using it. Do not transmit or receive
constantly. In hostile territory, keep transmissions short to avoid enemy radio direction finding.
In cold weather, keep the battery inside your clothing when not using the radio. Cold quickly
drains the battery's power. Do not expose the battery to extreme heat such as desert sun. High
heat may cause the battery to explode. Try to keep the radio and battery as dry as possible, as
water may destroy the circuitry.

Whistles
Whistles provide an excellent way for close up signaling. In some documented cases, they have been
heard up to 1.6 kilometers away. Manufactured whistles have more range than a human whistle.
Gunshots
In some situations you can use firearms for signaling. Three shots fired at distinct intervals usually
indicate a distress signal. Do not use this technique in enemy territory. The enemy will surely come to
investigate shots.

CODES AND SIGNALS
Now that you know how to let people know where you are, you need to know how to give them more
information. It is easier to form one symbol than to spell out an entire message. Therefore, learn the
codes and symbols that all aircraft pilots understand.

SOS
You can use lights or flags to send an SOS--three dots, three dashes, three dots. The SOS is the
internationally recognized distress signal in radio Morse code. A dot is a short, sharp pulse; a dash is a
longer pulse. Keep repeating the signal. When using flags, hold flags on the left side for dashes and on
the right side for dots.
Page 205 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Ground-to-Air Emergency Code
This code (Figure 19-6) is actually five definite, meaningful symbols. Make these symbols a minimum of
1 meter wide and 6 meters long. If you make them larger, keep the same 1: 6 ratio. Ensure the signal
contrasts greatly with the ground it is on. Place it in an open area easily spotted from the air.

Body Signals
When an aircraft is close enough for the pilot to see you clearly, use body movements or positions
(Figure 19-7) to convey a message.

Panel Signals
If you have a life raft cover or sail, or a suitable substitute, use the symbols shown in Figure 19-8 to
convey a message.
Page 206 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Aircraft Acknowledgments
Once the pilot of a fixed-wing aircraft has sighted you, he will normally indicate he has seen you by flying
low, moving the plane, and flashing lights as shown in Figure 19-9. Be ready to relay other messages to
the pilot once he acknowledges that he received and understood your first message. Use a radio, if
possible, to relay further messages. If no radio is available, use the codes covered in the previous
paragraphs.

Page 207 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

AIRCRAFT VECTORING PROCEDURES
If you can contact a friendly aircraft with a radio, guide the pilot to your location. Use the following
general format to guide the pilot:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Mayday, Mayday.
Call sign (if any).
Name.
Location.
Number of survivors.
Available landing sites.
Any remarks such as medical aid or other specific types of help needed immediately.

Simply because you have made contact with rescuers does not mean you are safe. Follow instructions
and continue to use sound survival and evasion techniques until you are actually rescued.

Page 208 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

CHAPTER 20 - SURVIVAL MOVEMENT IN HOSTILE AREAS

The "rescue at any cost" philosophy of previous conflicts is not likely to be possible in
future conflicts. Our potential adversaries have made great progress in air defense
measures and radio direction finding (RDF) techniques. We must assume that U.S.
military forces trapped behind enemy lines in future conflicts may not experience quick
recovery by friendly elements. Soldiers may have to move for extended times and
distances to places less threatening to the recovery forces. The soldier will not likely know
the type of recovery to expect. Each situation and the available resources determine the
type of recovery possible. Since no one can be absolutely sure until the recovery effort
begins, soldiers facing a potential cutoff from friendly forces should be familiar with all the
possible types of recovery, their related problems, and their responsibilities to the
recovery effort. Preparation and training can improve the chances of success.

PHASES OF PLANNING
Preparation is a requirement for all missions. When planning, you must consider how to avoid capture
and return to your unit. Contingency plans must be prepared in conjunction with unit standing operating
procedures (SOPs). Courses of action you or your unit will take must also be considered.

Contingency Plan of Action (CPA)
Intelligence sections can help prepare personnel for contingency actions through information supplied in
area studies, SERE (survival, evasion, resistance, and escape) contingency guides, threat briefings,
current intelligence reports, and current contact and authentication procedures. Pre-mission preparation
includes the completion of a CPA. The study and research needed to develop the CPA will make you
aware of the current situation in your mission area. Your CPA will let recovery forces know your probable
actions should you have to move to avoid capture.
Start preparing even before pre-mission planning. Many parts of the CPA are SOP for your unit. Include
the CPA in your training. Planning starts in your daily training.
The CPA is your entire plan for your return to friendly control. It consists of five paragraphs written in the
operation order format. You can take most of paragraph 1, Situation, with you on the mission. Appendix
H contains the CPA format. It also indicates what portion of the CPA you can take with you.
A comprehensive CPA is a valuable asset to the soldier trapped behind enemy lines who must try to
avoid capture. To complete paragraph 1, know your unit's assigned area or concentrate on potential
mission areas of the world. Many open or closed sources contain the information you need to complete a
CPA. Open sources may include newspapers, magazines, country or area handbooks, area studies,
television, radio, persons familiar with the area, and libraries. Closed sources may include area studies,
area assessments, SERE contingency guides, various classified field manuals, and intelligence reports.
Prepare your CPA in three phases. During your normal training, prepare paragraph 1, Situation. Prepare
paragraphs 2, 3, 4, and 5 during your pre-mission planning. After deployment into an area, continually
update your CPA based on mission changes and intelligence updates.
Page 209 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

The CPA is a guide. You may add or delete certain portions based on the mission. The CPA may be a
recovery force's only means of determining your location and intentions after you start to move. It is an
essential tool for your survival and return to friendly control.

Standing Operating Procedures
Unit SOPs are valuable tools your unit has that will help your planning. When faced with a dangerous
situation requiring immediate action, it is not the time to discuss options; it is the time to act. Many of the
techniques used during small unit movement can be carried over to fit requirements for moving and
returning to friendly control. Items from the SOP should include, but are not limited to-•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Movement team size (three to four persons per team).
Team communications (technical and nontechnical).
Essential equipment.
Actions at danger areas.
Signaling techniques.
Immediate action drills.
Linkup procedures.
Helicopter recovery devices and procedures.
Security procedures during movement and at hide sites.
Rally points.

Rehearsals work effectively for reinforcing these SOP skills and also provide opportunities for evaluation
and improvement.

Notification to Move and Avoid Capture
An isolated unit has several general courses of action it can take to avoid the capture of the group or
individuals. These courses of action are not courses the commander can choose instead of his original
mission. He cannot arbitrarily abandon the assigned mission. Rather, he may adopt these courses of
action after completing his mission when his unit cannot complete its assigned mission (because of
combat power losses) or when he receives orders to extract his unit from its current position. If such
actions are not possible, the commander may decide to have the unit try to move to avoid capture and
return to friendly control. In either case, as long as there is communication with higher headquarters, that
headquarters will make the decision.
If the unit commander loses contact with higher headquarters, he must make the decision to move or
wait. He bases his decision on many factors, including the mission, rations and ammunition on hand,
casualties, the chance of relief by friendly forces, and the tactical situation. The commander of an
isolated unit faces other questions. What course of action will inflict maximum damage on the enemy?
What course of action will assist in completing the higher headquarters' overall mission?
Movement teams conduct the execution portion of the plan when notified by higher headquarters or, if
there is no contact with higher headquarters, when the highest ranking survivor decides that the situation
requires the unit to try to escape capture or destruction. Movement team leaders receive their notification
through prebriefed signals. Once the signal to try to avoid capture is given, it must be passed rapidly to
all personnel. Notify higher headquarters, if possible. If unable to communicate with higher headquarters,
leaders must recognize that organized resistance has ended, and that organizational control has ceased.
Command and control is now at the movement team or individual level and is returned to higher
organizational control only after reaching friendly lines.

EXECUTION
Upon notification to avoid capture, all movement team members will try to link up at the initial movement
point. This point is where team members rally and actually begin their movement. Tentatively select the
initial movement point during your planning phase through a map recon. Once on the ground, the team
Page 210 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

verifies this location or selects a better one. All team members must know its location. The initial
movement point should be easy to locate and occupy for a minimum amount of time.
Once the team has rallied at the initial movement point, it must-•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Give first aid.
Inventory its equipment (decide what to abandon, destroy, or take along).
Apply camouflage.
Make sure everyone knows the tentative hide locations.
Ensure everyone knows the primary and alternate routes and rally points en route to the hide
locations.
Always maintain security.
Split the team into smaller elements. The ideal element should have two to three members;
however, it could include more depending on team equipment and experience.

The movement portion of returning to friendly control is the most dangerous as you are now most
vulnerable. It is usually better to move at night because of the concealment darkness offers. Exceptions
to such movement would be when moving through hazardous terrain or dense vegetation (for example,
jungle or mountainous terrain). When moving, avoid the following even if it takes more time and energy
to bypass:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Obstacles and barriers.
Roads and trails.
Inhabited areas.
Waterways and bridges.
Natural lines of drift.
Man-made structures.
All civilian and military personnel.

Movement in enemy-held territory is a very slow and deliberate process. The slower you move and the
more careful you are, the better. Your best security will be using your senses. Use your eyes and ears to
detect people before they detect you. Make frequent listening halts. In daylight, observe a section of your
route before you move along it. The distance you travel before you hide will depend on the enemy
situation, your health, the terrain, the availability of cover and concealment for hiding, and the amount of
darkness left.
Once you have moved into the area in which you want to hide (hide area), select a hide site. Keep the
following formula in mind when selecting a hide site: BLISS.
B - Blends in with the surroundings.
L - Low in silhouette.
I - Irregular in shape.
S - Small in size.
S - Secluded.
Avoid the use of existing buildings or shelters. Usually, your best option will be to crawl into the thickest
vegetation you can find. Construct any type of shelter within the hide area only in cold weather and
desert environments. If you build a shelter, follow the BLISS formula.

Hide Site Activities
After you have located your hide site, do not move straight into it. Use a button hook or other deceptive
technique to move to a position outside of the hide site. Conduct a listening halt before moving
individually into the hide site. Be careful not to disturb or cut any vegetation. Once you have occupied the
hide site, limit your activities to maintaining security, resting, camouflaging, and planning your next
moves.
Page 211 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Maintain your security through visual scanning and listening. Upon detection of the enemy, the security
personnel alert all personnel, even if the team's plan is to stay hidden and not move upon sighting the
enemy. Take this action so that everyone is aware of the danger and ready to react.
If any team member leaves the team, give him a five-point contingency plan. Take such steps especially
when a recon team or a work party is out of the hole-up or hide site.
It is extremely important to stay healthy and alert when trying to avoid capture. Take every opportunity to
rest, but do not sacrifice security. Rotate security so that all members of your movement team can rest.
Treat all injuries, no matter how minor. Loss of your health will mean loss of your ability to continue to
avoid capture.
Camouflage is an important aspect of both moving and securing a hide site. Always use a buddy system
to ensure that camouflage is complete. Ensure that team members blend with the hide site. Use natural
or man-made materials. If you add any additional camouflage material to the hide site, do not cut
vegetation in the immediate area.
Plan your next actions while at the hide site. Start your planning process immediately upon occupying the
hide site. Inform all team members of their current location and designate an alternate hide site location.
Once this is done, start planning for the team's next movement.
Planning the team's movement begins with a map recon. Choose the next hide area first. Then choose a
primary and an alternate route to the hide area. In choosing the routes, do not use straight lines. Use one
or two radical changes in direction. Pick the routes that offer the best cover and concealment, the fewest
obstacles, and the least likelihood of contact with humans. There should be locations along the route
where the team can get water. To aid team navigation, use azimuths, distances, checkpoints or steering
marks, and corridors. Plan rally points and rendezvous points at intervals along the route.
Other planning considerations may fall under what the team already has in the team SOP. Examples are
immediate action drills, actions on sighting the enemy, and hand-and-arm signals.
Once planning is complete, ensure everyone knows and memorizes the entire plan. The team members
should know the distances and azimuths for the entire route to the next hide area. They should study the
map and know the various terrain they will be moving across so that they can move without using the
map.
Do not occupy a hide site for more than 24 hours. In most situations, hide during the day and move at
night. Limit your actions in the hide site to those discussed above. Once in the hide site, restrict all
movement to less than 45 centimeters above the ground. Do not build fires or prepare food. Smoke and
food odors will reveal your location. Before leaving the hide site, sterilize it to prevent tracking.

Hole-Up Areas
After moving and hiding for several days, usually three or four, you or the movement team will have to
move into a hole-up area. This is an area where you can rest, recuperate, and get and prepare food.
Choose an area near a water source. You then have a place to get water, to place fishing devices, and
to trap game. Since waterways are a line of communication, locate your hide site well away from the
water.
The hole-up area should offer plenty of cover and concealment for movement in and around the area.
Always maintain security while in the hole-up area. Always man the hole-up area. Actions in the hole-up
area are the same as in hide site, except that you can move away from the hole-up area to get and
prepare food. Actions in the hole-up area include-•
•
•

Selecting and occupying the next hide site (remember you are still in a dangerous situation; this is
not a friendly area).
Reconnoitering the area for resources and potential concealed movement routes to the alternate
hide site.
Gathering food (nuts, berries, vegetables). When moving around the area for food, maintain
security and avoid leaving tracks or other signs. When setting traps and snares, keep them wellcamouflaged and in areas where people are not likely to discover them. Remember, the local
population sometimes heavily travels trails near water sources.
Page 212 of 233

FM 21-76

•

•
•

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Getting water from sources within the hide area. Be careful not to leave tracks of signs along the
banks of water sources when getting water. Moving on hard rocks or logs along the banks to get
water will reduce the signs you leave.
Setting clandestine fishing devices, such as stakeouts, below the surface of the water to avoid
detection.
Locating a fire site well away from the hide site. Use this site to prepare food or boil water.
Camouflage and sterilize the fire site after each use. Be careful that smoke and light from the fire
does not compromise the hole-up area.

While in the hole-up area, security is still your primary concern. Designate team members to perform
specific tasks. To limit movement around the area, you may have a two-man team perform more than
one task. For example, the team getting water could also set the fishing devices. Do not occupy the holeup area longer than 72 hours.

RETURN TO FRIENDLY CONTROL
Establishing contact with friendly lines or patrols is the most crucial part of movement and return to
friendly control. All your patience, planning, and hardships will be in vain if you do not exercise caution
when contacting friendly frontline forces. Friendly patrols have killed personnel operating behind enemy
lines because they did not make contact properly. Most of the casualties could have been avoided if
caution had been exercised and a few simple procedures followed. The normal tendency is to throw
caution to the winds when in sight of friendly forces. You must overcome this tendency and understand
that linkup is a very sensitive situation.

Border Crossings
If you have made your way to a friendly or neutral country, use the following procedures to cross the
border and link up with friendly forces on the other side:
•
•
•

•
•
•

•

Occupy a hide site on the near side of the border and send a team out to reconnoiter the potential
crossing site.
Surveil the crossing site for at least 24 hours, depending on the enemy situation.
Make a sketch of the site, taking note of terrain, obstacles, guard routines and rotations, and any
sensor devices or trip wires. Once the recon is complete, the team moves to the hide site, briefs
the rest of the team, and plans to cross the border at night.
After crossing the border, set up a hide site on the far side of the border and try to locate friendly
positions. Do not reveal your presence.
Depending on the size of your movement team, have two men surveil the potential linkup site with
friendly forces until satisfied that the personnel are indeed friendly.
Make contact with the friendly forces during daylight. Personnel chosen to make contact should
be unarmed, have no equipment, and have positive identification readily available. The person
who actually makes the linkup should be someone who looks least like the enemy.
During the actual contact, have only one person make the contact. The other person provides the
security and observes the linkup area from a safe distance. The observer should be far enough
away so that he can warn the rest of the movement team if something goes wrong.
Wait until the party he is contacting looks in his direction so that he does not surprise the contact.
He stands up from behind cover, with hands overhead and states that he is an American. After
this, he follows any instructions given him. He avoids answering any tactical questions and does
not give any indication that there are other team members.
Reveal that there are other personnel with him only after verifying his identity and satisfying
himself he has made contact with friendly forces.

Language problems or difficulties confirming identities may arise. The movement team should maintain
security, be patient, and have a contingency plan.
Page 213 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Note: If you are moving to a neutral country, you are surrendering to that power and
become a detained person.

Linkup at the FEBA/FLOT
If caught between friendly and enemy forces and there is heavy fighting in the area, you may choose to
hide and let the friendly lines pass over you. If overrun by friendly forces, you may try to link up from their
rear during daylight hours. If overrun by enemy forces, you may move further to the enemy rear, try to
move to the forward edge of the battle area (FEBA)/forward line of own troops (FLOT) during a lull in the
fighting, or move to another area along the front.
The actual linkup will be done as for linkup during a border crossing. The only difference is that you must
be more careful on the initial contact. Frontline personnel are more likely to shoot first and ask questions
later, especially in areas of heavy fighting. You should be near or behind cover before trying to make
contact.

Linkup With Friendly Patrols
If friendly lines are a circular perimeter or an isolated camp, for example, any direction you approach
from will be considered enemy territory. You do not have the option of moving behind the lines and trying
to link up. This move makes the linkup extremely dangerous. One option you have is to place the
perimeter under observation and wait for a friendly patrol to move out in your direction, providing a
chance for a linkup. You may also occupy a position outside of the perimeter and call out to get the
attention of the friendly forces. Ideally, display anything that is white while making contact. If nothing else
is available, use any article of clothing. The idea is to draw attention while staying behind cover. Once
you have drawn attention to your signal and called out, follow instructions given to you.
Be constantly on the alert for friendly patrols because these provide a means for return to friendly control.
Find a concealed position that allows you maximum visual coverage of the area. Try to memorize every
terrain feature so that, if necessary, you can infiltrate to friendly positions under the cover of darkness.
Remember, trying to infiltrate in darkness is extremely dangerous.
Because of the missions of combat and recon patrols and where they are operating, making contact can
be dangerous. If you decide not to make contact, you can observe their route and approach friendly lines
at about the same location. Such observation will enable you to avoid mines and booby traps.
Once you have spotted a patrol, remain in position and, if possible, allow the patrol to move toward you.
When the patrol is 25 to 50 meters from your position, signal them and call out a greeting that is clearly
and unmistakably of American origin.
If you have nothing white, an article of clothing will suffice to draw attention. If the distance is greater than
50 meters, a recon patrol may avoid contact and bypass your position. If the distance is less than 25
meters, a patrol member may react instantly by firing a fatal shot.
It is crucial, at the time of contact, that there is enough light for the patrol to identify you as an American.
Whatever linkup technique you decide to use, use extreme caution. From the perspective of the friendly
patrol or friendly personnel occupying a perimeter, you are hostile until they make positive identification.

Page 214 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

CHAPTER 21 - CAMOUFLAGE

In a survival situation, especially in a hostile environment, you may find it necessary to
camouflage yourself, your equipment, and your movement. It may mean the difference
between survival and capture by the enemy. Camouflage and movement techniques, such
as stalking, will also help you get animals or game for food using primitive weapons and
skills.

PERSONAL CAMOUFLAGE
When camouflaging yourself, consider that certain shapes are particular to humans. The enemy will look
for these shapes. The shape of a hat, helmet, or black boots can give you away. Even animals know and
run from the shape of a human silhouette. Break up your outline by placing small amounts of vegetation
from the surrounding area in your uniform, equipment, and headgear. Try to reduce any shine from skin
or equipment. Blend in with the surrounding colors and simulate the texture of your surroundings.

Shape and Outline
Change the outline of weapons and equipment by tying vegetation or strips of cloth onto them. Make
sure the added camouflage does not hinder the equipment's operation. When hiding, cover yourself and
your equipment with leaves, grass, or other local debris. Conceal any signaling devices you have
prepared, but keep them ready for use.

Color and Texture
Each area of the world and each climatic condition (arctic/winter, temperate/jungle, or swamp/desert) has
color patterns and textures that are natural for that area. While color is self-explanatory, texture defines
the surface characteristics of something when looking at it. For example, surface textures may be
smooth, rough, rocky, leafy, or many other possible combinations. Use color and texture together to
camouflage yourself effectively. It makes little sense to cover yourself with dead, brown vegetation in the
middle of a large grassy field. Similarly, it would be useless to camouflage yourself with green grass in
the middle of a desert or rocky area.
To hide and camouflage movement in any specific area of the world, you must take on the color and
texture of the immediate surroundings. Use natural or man-made materials to camouflage yourself.
Camouflage paint, charcoal from burned paper or wood, mud, grass, leaves, strips of cloth or burlap,
pine boughs, and camouflaged uniforms are a few examples.
Cover all areas of exposed skin, including face, hands, neck, and ears. Use camouflage paint, charcoal,
or mud to camouflage yourself. Cover with a darker color areas that stick out more and catch more light
(forehead, nose, cheekbones, chin, and ears). Cover other areas, particularly recessed or shaded areas
(around the eyes and under the chin), with lighter colors. Be sure to use an irregular pattern. Attach
Page 215 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

vegetation from the area or strips of cloth of the proper color to clothing and equipment. If you use
vegetation, replace it as it wilts. As you move through an area, be alert to the color changes and modify
your camouflage colors as necessary.
Figure 21-1 gives a general idea of how to apply camouflage for various areas and climates. Use
appropriate colors for your surroundings. The blotches or slashes will help to simulate texture.

Shine
As skin gets oily, it becomes shiny. Equipment with worn off paint is also shiny. Even painted objects, if
smooth, may shine. Glass objects such as mirrors, glasses, binoculars, and telescopes shine. You must
cover these glass objects when not in use. Anything that shines automatically attracts attention and will
give away your location.
Whenever possible, wash oily skin and reapply camouflage. Skin oil will wash off camouflage, so reapply
it frequently. If you must wear glasses, camouflage them by applying a thin layer of dust to the outside of
the lenses. This layer of dust will reduce the reflection of light. Cover shiny spots on equipment by
painting, covering with mud, or wrapping with cloth or tape. Pay particular attention to covering boot
eyelets, buckles on equipment, watches and jewelry, zippers, and uniform insignia. Carry a signal mirror
in its designed pouch or in a pocket with the mirror portion facing your body.

Shadow
When hiding or traveling, stay in the deepest part of the shadows. The outer edges of the shadows are
lighter and the deeper parts are darker. Remember, if you are in an area where there is plenty of
vegetation, keep as much vegetation between you and a potential enemy as possible. This action will
make it very hard for the enemy to see you as the vegetation will partially mask you from his view.
Forcing an enemy to look through many layers of masking vegetation will fatigue his eyes very quickly.
When traveling, especially in built-up areas at night, be aware of where you cast your shadow. It may
extend out around the comer of a building and give away your position. Also, if you are in a dark shadow
and there is a light source to one side, an enemy on the other side can see your silhouette against the
light.

Movement
Movement, especially fast movement, attracts attention. If at all possible, avoid movement in the
presence of an enemy. If capture appears imminent in your present location and you must move, move
away slowly, making as little noise as possible. By moving slowly in a survival situation, you decrease the
chance of detection and conserve energy that you may need for long-term survival or long-distance
evasion.
When moving past obstacles, avoid going over them. If you must climb over an obstacle, keep your body
level with its top to avoid silhouetting yourself. Do not silhouette yourself against the skyline when
Page 216 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

crossing hills or ridges. When you are moving, you will have difficulty detecting the movement of others.
Stop frequently, listen, and look around slowly to detect signs of hostile movement.

Noise
Noise attracts attention, especially if there is a sequence of loud noises such as several snapping twigs.
If possible, avoid making any noise at all. Slow down your pace as much as necessary to avoid making
noise when moving around or away from possible threats.
Use background noises to cover the noise of your movement. Sounds of aircraft, trucks, generators,
strong winds, and people talking will cover some or all the sounds produced by your movement. Rain will
mask a lot of movement noise, but it also reduces your ability to detect potential enemy noise.

Scent
Whether hunting animals or avoiding the enemy, it is always wise to camouflage the scent associated
with humans. Start by washing yourself and your clothes without using soap. This washing method
removes soap and body odors. Avoiding strong smelling foods, such as garlic, helps reduce body odors.
Do not use tobacco products, candy, gum, or cosmetics.
You can use aromatic herbs or plants to wash yourself and your clothing, to rub on your body and
clothing, or to chew on to camouflage your breath. Pine needles, mint, or any similar aromatic plant will
help camouflage your scent from both animals and humans. Standing in smoke from a fire can help
mask your scent from animals. While animals are afraid of fresh smoke from a fire, older smoke scents
are normal smells after forest fires and do not scare them.
While traveling, use your sense of smell to help you find or avoid humans. Pay attention to smells
associated with humans, such as fire, cigarettes, gasoline, oil, soap, and food. Such smells may alert you
to their presence long before you can see or hear them, depending on wind speed and direction. Note
the wind's direction and, when possible, approach from or skirt around on the downwind side when
nearing humans or animals.

METHODS OF STALKING
Sometimes you need to move, undetected, to or from a location. You need more than just camouflage to
make these moves successfully. The ability to stalk or move without making any sudden quick movement
or loud noise is essential to avoiding detection.
You must practice stalking if it is to be effective. Use the following techniques when practicing.

Upright Stalking
Take steps about half your normal stride when stalking in the upright position. Such strides help you to
maintain your balance. You should be able to stop at any point in that movement and hold that position
as long as necessary. Curl the toes up out of the way when stepping down so the outside edge of the
ball of the foot touches the ground. Feel for sticks and twigs that may snap when you place your weight
on them. If you start to step on one, lift your foot and move it. After making contact with the outside edge
of the ball of your foot, roll to the inside ball of your foot, place your heel down, followed by your toes.
Then gradually shift your weight forward to the front foot. Lift the back foot to about knee height and start
the process over again.
Keep your hands and arms close to your body and avoid waving them about or hitting vegetation. When
moving in a crouch, you gain extra support by placing your hands on your knees. One step usually takes
1 minute to complete, but the time it takes will depend on the situation.

Crawling

Page 217 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Crawl on your hands and knees when the vegetation is too low to allow you to walk upright without being
seen. Move one limb at a time and be sure to set it down softly, feeling for anything that may snap and
make noise. Be careful that your toes and heels do not catch on vegetation.

Prone Stalking
To stalk in the prone position, you do a low, modified push-up on your hands and toes, moving yourself
forward slightly, and then lowering yourself again slowly. Avoid dragging and scraping along the ground
as this makes excessive noise and leaves large trails for trackers to follow.

Animal Stalking
Before stalking an animal, select the best route. If the animal is moving, you will need an intercepting
route. Pick a route that puts objects between you and the animal to conceal your movement from it. By
positioning yourself in this way, you will be able to move faster, until you pass that object. Some objects,
such as large rocks and trees, may totally conceal you, and others, such as small bushes and grass,
may only partially conceal you. Pick the route that offers the best concealment and requires the least
amount of effort.
Keep your eyes on the animal and stop when it looks your way or turns its ears your way, especially if it
suspects your presence. As you get close, squint your eyes slightly to conceal both the light-dark
contrast of the whites of the eyes and any shine from your eyes. Keep your mouth closed so that the
animal does not see the whiteness or shine of your teeth.

Page 218 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

CHAPTER 22 - CONTACT WITH PEOPLE

Some of the best and most frequently given advice, when dealing with local peoples, is for
the survivor to accept, respect, and adapt to their ways. Thus, "when in Rome, do as the
Romans do." This is excellent advice, but there are several considerations involved in
putting this advice into practice.

CONTACT WITH LOCAL PEOPLE
You must give serious consideration to dealing with the local people. Do they have a primitive culture?
Are they farmers, fishermen, friendly people, or enemy? As a survivor, "cross-cultural communication"
can vary radically from area to area and from people to people. It may mean interaction with people of an
extremely primitive culture or contact with people who have a relatively modem culture. A culture is
identified by standards of behavior that its members consider proper and acceptable but may or may not
conform to your idea of what is proper. No matter who these people are, you can expect they will have
laws, social and economic values, and political and religious beliefs that may be radically different from
yours. Before deploying into your area of operations, study these different cultural aspects. Prior study
and preparation will help you make or avoid contact if you have to deal with the local population.
People will be friendly, unfriendly, or they will choose to ignore you. Their attitude may be unknown. If the
people are known to be friendly, try to keep them friendly through your courtesy and respect for their
religion, politics, social customs, habits, and all other aspects of their culture. If the people are known to
be enemies or are unknowns, make every effort to avoid any contact and leave no sign of your presence.
A basic knowledge of the daily habits of the local people will be essential in this attempt. If after careful
observation you determine that an unknown people are friendly, you may contact them if you absolutely
need their help.
Usually, you have little to fear and much to gain from cautious and respectful contact with local people of
friendly or neutral countries. If you become familiar with the local customs, display common decency, and
most important, show respect for their customs, you should be able to avoid trouble and possibly gain
needed help. To make contact, wait until only one person is near and, if possible, let that person make
the initial approach. Most people will be willing to help a survivor who appears to be in need. However,
local political attitudes, instruction, or propaganda efforts may change the attitudes of otherwise friendly
people. Conversely, in unfriendly countries, many people, especially in remote areas, may feel animosity
toward their politicians and may be more friendly toward a survivor.
The key to successful contact with local peoples is to be friendly, courteous, and patient. Displaying fear,
showing weapons, and making sudden or threatening movements can cause a local person to fear you.
Such actions can prompt a hostile response. When attempting a contact, smile as often as you can.
Many local peoples are shy and seem unapproachable, or they may ignore you. Approach them slowly
and do not rush your contact.

Page 219 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

THE SURVIVOR'S BEHAVIOR
Use salt, tobacco, silver money, and similar items discreetly when trading with local people. Paper
money is well-known worldwide. Do not overpay; it may lead to embarrassment and even danger.
Always treat people with respect. Do not bully them or laugh at them.
Using sign language or acting out needs or questions can be very effective. Many people are used to
such language and communicate using nonverbal sign language. Try to learn a few words and phrases
of the local language in and around your potential area of operations. Trying to speak someone's
language is one of the best ways to show respect for his culture. Since English is widely used, some of
the local people may understand a few words of English.
Some areas may be taboo. They range from religious or sacred places to diseased or danger areas. In
some areas, certain animals must not be killed. Learn the rules and follow them. Watch and learn as
much as possible. Such actions will help to strengthen relations and provide new knowledge and skills
that may be very important later. Seek advice on local hazards and find out from friendly people where
the hostile people are. Always remember that people frequently insist that other peoples are hostile,
simply because they do not understand different cultures and distant peoples. The people they can
usually trust are their immediate neighbors--much the same as in our own neighborhood.
Frequently, local people, like ourselves, will suffer from contagious diseases. Build a separate shelter, if
possible, and avoid physical contact without giving the impression of doing so. Personally prepare your
food and drink, if you can do so without giving offense. Frequently, the local people will accept the use of
"personal or religious custom" as an explanation for isolationist behavior.
Barter, or trading, is common in more primitive societies. Hard coin is usually good, whether for its
exchange value or as jewelry or trinkets. In isolated areas, matches, tobacco, salt, razor blades, empty
containers, or cloth may be worth more than any form of money.
Be very cautious when touching people. Many people consider "touching" taboo and such actions may
be dangerous. Avoid sexual contact.
Hospitality among some people is such a strong cultural trait that they may seriously reduce their own
supplies to feed a stranger. Accept what they offer and share it equally with all present. Eat in the same
way they eat and, most important, try to eat all they offer.
If you make any promises, keep them. Respect personal property and local customs and manners, even
if they seem odd. Make some kind of payment for food, supplies, and so forth. Respect privacy. Do not
enter a house unless invited.

CHANGES TO POLITICAL ALLEGIANCE
In today's world of fast-paced international politics, political attitudes and commitments within nations are
subject to rapid change. The population of many countries, especially politically hostile countries, must
not be considered friendly just because they do not demonstrate open hostility. Unless briefed to the
contrary; avoid all contact with such people.

Page 220 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

CHAPTER 23 - SURVIVAL IN MAN-MADE HAZARDS

Nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons have become potential realities on any modern
battlefield. Recent experience in Afghanistan, Cambodia, and other areas of conflict has
proved the use of chemical and biological weapons (such as mycotoxins). The warfighting
doctrine of the NATO and Warsaw Pact nations addresses the use of both nuclear and
chemical weapons. The potential use of these weapons intensifies the problems of
survival because of the serious dangers posed by either radioactive fallout or
contamination produced by persistent biological or chemical agents.
You must use special precautions if you expect to survive in these man-made hazards. If
you are subjected to any of the effects of nuclear, chemical, or biological warfare, the
survival procedures recommended in this chapter may save your life. This chapter
presents some background information on each type of hazard so that you may better
understand the true nature of the hazard. Awareness of the hazards, knowledge of this
chapter, and application of common sense should keep you alive.

THE NUCLEAR ENVIRONMENT
Prepare yourself to survive in a nuclear environment. Know how to react to a nuclear hazard.

Effects of Nuclear Weapons
The effects of nuclear weapons are classified as either initial or residual. Initial effects occur in the
immediate area of the explosion and are hazardous in the first minute after the explosion. Residual
effects can last for days or years and cause death. The principal initial effects are blast and radiation.
Blast
Defined as the brief and rapid movement of air away from the explosion's center and the pressure
accompanying this movement. Strong winds accompany the blast. Blast hurls debris and personnel,
collapses lungs, ruptures eardrums, collapses structures and positions, and causes immediate death or
injury with its crushing effect.
Thermal Radiation
The heat and light radiation a nuclear explosion's fireball emits. Light radiation consists of both visible
light and ultraviolet and infrared light. Thermal radiation produces extensive fires, skin burns, and flash
blindness.
Nuclear Radiation
Nuclear radiation breaks down into two categories-initial radiation and residual radiation.
Initial nuclear radiation consists of intense gamma rays and neutrons produced during the first minute
after the explosion. This radiation causes extensive damage to cells throughout the body. Radiation
damage may cause headaches, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and even death, depending on the radiation
dose received. The major problem in protecting yourself against the initial radiation's effects is that you
Page 221 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

may have received a lethal or incapacitating dose before taking any protective action. Personnel
exposed to lethal amounts of initial radiation may well have been killed or fatally injured by blast or
thermal radiation.
Residual radiation consists of all radiation produced after one minute from the explosion. It has more
effect on you than initial radiation. A discussion of residual radiation takes place in a subsequent
paragraph.

Types of Nuclear Bursts
There are three types of nuclear bursts--airburst, surface burst, and subsurface burst. The type of burst
directly affects your chances of survival. A subsurface burst occurs completely underground or
underwater. Its effects remain beneath the surface or in the immediate area where the surface collapses
into a crater over the burst's location. Subsurface bursts cause you little or no radioactive hazard unless
you enter the immediate area of the crater. No further discussion of this type of burst will take place.
An airburst occurs in the air above its intended target. The airburst provides the maximum radiation effect
on the target and is, therefore, most dangerous to you in terms of immediate nuclear effects.
A surface burst occurs on the ground or water surface. Large amounts of fallout result, with serious longterm effects for you. This type of burst is your greatest nuclear hazard.

Nuclear Injuries
Most injuries in the nuclear environment result from the initial nuclear effects of the detonation. These
injuries are classed as blast, thermal, or radiation injuries. Further radiation injuries may occur if you do
not take proper precautions against fallout. Individuals in the area near a nuclear explosion will probably
suffer a combination of all three types of injuries.
Blast Injuries
Blast injuries produced by nuclear weapons are similar to those caused by conventional high-explosive
weapons. Blast overpressure can produce collapsed lungs and ruptured internal organs. Projectile
wounds occur as the explosion's force hurls debris at you. Large pieces of debris striking you will cause
fractured limbs or massive internal injuries. Blast over-pressure may throw you long distances, and you
will suffer severe injury upon impact with the ground or other objects. Substantial cover and distance
from the explosion are the best protection against blast injury. Cover blast injury wounds as soon as
possible to prevent the entry of radioactive dust particles.
Thermal Injuries
The heat and light the nuclear fireball emits causes thermal injuries. First-, second-, or third-degree burns
may result. Flash blindness also occurs. This blindness may be permanent or temporary depending on
the degree of exposure of the eyes. Substantial cover and distance from the explosion can prevent
thermal injuries. Clothing will provide significant protection against thermal injuries. Cover as much
exposed skin as possible before a nuclear explosion. First aid for thermal injuries is the same as first aid
for burns. Cover open burns (second-or third-degree) to prevent the entry of radioactive particles. Wash
all burns before covering.
Radiation Injuries
Neutrons, gamma radiation, alpha radiation, and beta radiation cause radiation injuries. Neutrons are
high-speed, extremely penetrating particles that actually smash cells within your body. Gamma radiation
is similar to X rays and is also a highly penetrating radiation. During the initial fireball stage of a nuclear
detonation, initial gamma radiation and neutrons are the most serious threat. Beta and alpha radiation
are radioactive particles normally associated with radioactive dust from fallout. They are short-range
particles and you can easily protect yourself against them if you take precautions. See Bodily Reactions
to Radiation, below, for the symptoms of radiation injuries.

Residual Radiation

Page 222 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Residual radiation is all radiation emitted after 1 minute from the instant of the nuclear explosion.
Residual radiation consists of induced radiation and fallout.
Induced Radiation
It describes a relatively small, intensely radioactive area directly underneath the nuclear weapon's
fireball. The irradiated earth in this area will remain highly radioactive for an extremely long time. You
should not travel into an area of induced radiation.
Fallout
Fallout consists of radioactive soil and water particles, as well as weapon fragments. During a surface
detonation, or if an airburst's nuclear fireball touches the ground, large amounts of soil and water are
vaporized along with the bomb's fragments, and forced upward to altitudes of 25,000 meters or more.
When these vaporized contents cool, they can form more than 200 different radioactive products. The
vaporized bomb contents condense into tiny radioactive particles that the wind carries and they fall back
to earth as radioactive dust. Fallout particles emit alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. Alpha and beta
radiation are relatively easy to counteract, and residual gamma radiation is much less intense than the
gamma radiation emitted during the first minute after the explosion. Fallout is your most significant
radiation hazard, provided you have not received a lethal radiation dose from the initial radiation.

Bodily Reactions to Radiation
The effects of radiation on the human body can be broadly classed as either chronic or acute. Chronic
effects are those that occur some years after exposure to radiation. Examples are cancer and genetic
defects. Chronic effects are of minor concern insofar as they affect your immediate survival in a
radioactive environment. On the other hand, acute effects are of primary importance to your survival.
Some acute effects occur within hours after exposure to radiation. These effects result from the
radiation's direct physical damage to tissue. Radiation sickness and beta burns are examples of acute
effects. Radiation sickness symptoms include nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, fatigue, weakness, and loss of
hair. Penetrating beta rays cause radiation burns; the wounds are similar to fire burns.
Recovery Capability
The extent of body damage depends mainly on the part of the body exposed to radiation and how long it
was exposed, as well as its ability to recover. The brain and kidneys have little recovery capability. Other
parts (skin and bone marrow) have a great ability to recover from damage. Usually, a dose of 600
centigrams (cgys) to the entire body will result in almost certain death. If only your hands received this
same dose, your overall health would not suffer much, although your hands would suffer severe damage.
External and Internal Hazards
An external or an internal hazard can cause body damage. Highly penetrating gamma radiation or the
less penetrating beta radiation that causes burns can cause external damage. The entry of alpha or beta
radiation-emitting particles into the body can cause internal damage. The external hazard produces
overall irradiation and beta burns. The internal hazard results in irradiation of critical organs such as the
gastrointestinal tract, thyroid gland, and bone. A very small amount of radioactive material can cause
extreme damage to these and other internal organs. The internal hazard can enter the body either
through consumption of contaminated water or food or by absorption through cuts or abrasions. Material
that enters the body through breathing presents only a minor hazard. You can greatly reduce the internal
radiation hazard by using good personal hygiene and carefully decontaminating your food and water.
Symptoms
The symptoms of radiation injuries include nausea, diarrhea, and vomiting. The severity of these
symptoms is due to the extreme sensitivity of the gastrointestinal tract to radiation. The severity of the
symptoms and the speed of onset after exposure are good indicators of the degree of radiation damage.
The gastrointestinal damage can come from either the external or the internal radiation hazard.

Countermeasures Against Penetrating External Radiation
Knowledge of the radiation hazards discussed earlier is extremely important in surviving in a fallout area.
It is also critical to know how to protect yourself from the most dangerous form of residual radiation-penetrating external radiation.
Page 223 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

The means you can use to protect yourself from penetrating external radiation are time, distance, and
shielding. You can reduce the level of radiation and help increase your chance of survival by controlling
the duration of exposure. You can also get as far away from the radiation source as possible. Finally you
can place some radiation-absorbing or shielding material between you and the radiation.
Time
Time is important to you, as the survivor, in two ways. First, radiation dosages are cumulative. The
longer you are exposed to a radioactive source, the greater the dose you will receive. Obviously, spend
as little time in a radioactive area as possible. Second, radioactivity decreases or decays over time. This
concept is known as radioactive half-life. Thus, a radioactive element decays or loses half of its
radioactivity within a certain time. The rule of thumb for radioactivity decay is that it decreases in intensity
by a factor of ten for every sevenfold increase in time following the peak radiation level. For example, if a
nuclear fallout area had a maximum radiation rate of 200 cgys per hour when fallout is complete, this rate
would fall to 20 cgys per hour after 7 hours; it would fall still further to 2 cgys per hour after 49 hours.
Even an untrained observer can see that the greatest hazard from fallout occurs immediately after
detonation, and that the hazard decreases quickly over a relatively short time. As a survivor, try to avoid
fallout areas until the radioactivity decays to safe levels. If you can avoid fallout areas long enough for
most of the radioactivity to decay, you enhance your chance of survival.
Distance
Distance provides very effective protection against penetrating gamma radiation because radiation
intensity decreases by the square of the distance from the source. For example, if exposed to 1,000 cgys
of radiation standing 30 centimeters from the source, at 60 centimeters, you would only receive 250
cgys. Thus, when you double the distance, radiation decreases to (0.5)2 or 0.25 the amount. While this
formula is valid for concentrated sources of radiation in small areas, it becomes more complicated for
large areas of radiation such as fallout areas.
Shielding
Shielding is the most important method of protection from penetrating radiation. Of the three
countermeasures against penetrating radiation, shielding provides the greatest protection and is the
easiest to use under survival conditions. Therefore, it is the most desirable method.
If shielding is not possible, use the other two methods to the maximum extent practical.
Shielding actually works by absorbing or weakening the penetrating radiation, thereby reducing the
amount of radiation reaching your body. The denser the material, the better the shielding effect. Lead,
iron, concrete, and water are good examples of shielding materials.
Special Medical Aspects
The presence of fallout material in your area requires slight changes in first aid procedures. You must
cover all wounds to prevent contamination and the entry of radioactive particles. You must first wash
burns of beta radiation, then treat them as ordinary burns. Take extra measures to prevent infection.
Your body will be extremely sensitive to infections due to changes in your blood chemistry. Pay close
attention to the prevention of colds or respiratory infections. Rigorously practice personal hygiene to
prevent infections. Cover your eyes with improvised goggles to prevent the entry of particles.

Shelter
As stated earlier, the shielding material's effectiveness depends on its thickness and density. An ample
thickness of shielding material will reduce the level of radiation to negligible amounts.
The primary reason for finding and building a shelter is to get protection against the high-intensity
radiation levels of early gamma fallout as fast as possible. Five minutes to locate the shelter is a good
guide. Speed in finding shelter is absolutely essential. Without shelter, the dosage received in the first
few hours will exceed that received during the rest of a week in a contaminated area. The dosage
received in this first week will exceed the dosage accumulated during the rest of a lifetime spent in the
same contaminated area.
Shielding Materials
The thickness required to weaken gamma radiation from fallout is far less than that needed to shield
against initial gamma radiation. Fallout radiation has less energy than a nuclear detonation's initial
radiation. For fallout radiation, a relatively small amount of shielding material can provide adequate
Page 224 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

protection. Figure 23-1 gives an idea of the thickness of various materials needed to reduce residual
gamma radiation transmission by 50 percent.

The principle of half-value layer thickness is useful in understanding the absorption of gamma radiation
by various materials. According to this principle, if 5 centimeters of brick reduce the gamma radiation
level by one-half, adding another 5 centimeters of brick (another half-value layer) will reduce the intensity
by another half, namely, to one-fourth the original amount. Fifteen centimeters will reduce gamma
radiation fallout levels to one-eighth its original amount, 20 centimeters to one-sixteenth, and so on.
Thus, a shelter protected by 1 meter of dirt would reduce a radiation intensity of 1,000 cgys per hour on
the outside to about 0.5 cgy per hour inside the shelter.
Natural Shelters
Terrain that provides natural shielding and easy shelter construction is the ideal location for an
emergency shelter. Good examples are ditches, ravines, rocky outcropping, hills, and river banks. In
level areas without natural protection, dig a fighting position or slit trench.
Trenches
When digging a trench, work from inside the trench as soon as it is large enough to cover part of your
body thereby not exposing all your body to radiation. In open country, try to dig the trench from a prone
position, stacking the dirt carefully and evenly around the trench. On level ground, pile the dirt around
your body for additional shielding. Depending upon soil conditions, shelter construction time will vary
from a few minutes to a few hours. If you dig as quickly as possible, you will reduce the dosage you
receive.
Other Shelters
While an underground shelter covered by 1 meter or more of earth provides the best protection against
fallout radiation, the following unoccupied structures (in order listed) offer the next best protection:
•
•
•
•
•

Caves and tunnels covered by more than 1 meter of earth.
Storm or storage cellars.
Culverts.
Basements or cellars of abandoned buildings.
Abandoned buildings made of stone or mud.

Roofs
It is not mandatory that you build a roof on your shelter. Build one only if the materials are readily
available with only a brief exposure to outside contamination. If building a roof would require extended
exposure to penetrating radiation, it would be wiser to leave the shelter roofless. A roof's sole function is
to reduce radiation from the fallout source to your body. Unless you use a thick roof, a roof provides very
little shielding.
Page 225 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

You can construct a simple roof from a poncho anchored down with dirt, rocks, or other refuse from your
shelter. You can remove large particles of dirt and debris from the top of the poncho by beating it off from
the inside at frequent intervals. This cover will not offer shielding from the radioactive particles deposited
on the surface, but it will increase the distance from the fallout source and keep the shelter area from
further contamination.
Shelter Site Selection and Preparation
To reduce your exposure time and thereby reduce the dosage received, remember the following factors
when selecting and setting up a shelter:
•
•
•

•
•

•

•
•
•

Where possible, seek a crude, existing shelter that you can improve. If none is available, dig a
trench.
Dig the shelter deep enough to get good protection, then enlarge it as required for comfort.
Cover the top of the fighting position or trench with any readily available material and a thick layer
of earth, if you can do so without leaving the shelter. While a roof and camouflage are both
desirable, it is probably safer to do without them than to expose yourself to radiation outside your
fighting position.
While building your shelter, keep all parts of your body covered with clothing to protect it against
beta burns.
Clean the shelter site of any surface deposit using a branch or other object that you can discard.
Do this cleaning to remove contaminated materials from the area you will occupy. The cleaned
area should extend at least 1.5 meters beyond your shelter's area.
Decontaminate any materials you bring into the shelter. These materials include grass or foliage
that you use as insulation or bedding, and your outer clothing (especially footgear). If the weather
permits and you have heavily contaminated outer clothing, you may want to remove it and bury it
under a foot of earth at the end of your shelter. You may retrieve it later (after the radioactivity
decays) when leaving the shelter. If the clothing is dry, you may decontaminate it by beating or
shaking it outside the shelter's entrance to remove the radioactive dust. You may use any body of
water, even though contaminated, to rid materials of excess fallout particles. Simply dip the
material into the water and shake it to get rid of the excess water. Do not wring it out, this action
will trap the particles.
If at all possible and without leaving the shelter, wash your body thoroughly with soap and water,
even if the water on hand may be contaminated. This washing will remove most of the harmful
radioactive particles that are likely to cause beta burns or other damage. If water is not available,
wipe your face and any other exposed skin surface to remove contaminated dust and dirt. You
may wipe your face with a clean piece of cloth or a handful of uncontaminated dirt. You get this
uncontaminated dirt by scraping off the top few inches of soil and using the "clean" dirt.
Upon completing the shelter, lie down, keep warm, and sleep and rest as much as possible while
in the shelter.
When not resting, keep busy by planning future actions, studying your maps, or making the
shelter more comfortable and effective.
Don't panic if you experience nausea and symptoms of radiation sickness. Your main danger
from radiation sickness is infection. There is no first aid for this sickness. Resting, drinking fluids,
taking any medicine that prevents vomiting, maintaining your food intake, and preventing
additional exposure will help avoid infection and aid recovery. Even small doses of radiation can
cause these symptoms which may disappear in a short time.

Exposure Timetable
The following timetable provides you with the information needed to avoid receiving serious dosage and
still let you cope with survival problems:
•
•
•

Complete isolation from 4 to 6 days following delivery of the last weapon.
A very brief exposure to procure water on the third day is permissible, but exposure should not
exceed 30 minutes.
One exposure of not more than 30 minutes on the seventh day.
Page 226 of 233

FM 21-76

•
•
•
•

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

One exposure of not more than 1 hour on the eighth day.
Exposure of 2 to 4 hours from the ninth day through the twelfth day.
Normal operation, followed by rest in a protected shelter, from the thirteenth day on.
In all instances, make your exposures as brief as possible. Consider only mandatory
requirements as valid reasons for exposure. Decontaminate at every stop.

The times given above are conservative. If forced to move after the first or second day, you may do so,
Make sure that the exposure is no longer than absolutely necessary.

Water Procurement
In a fallout-contaminated area, available water sources may be contaminated. If you wait at least 48
hours before drinking any water to allow for radioactive decay to take place and select the safest
possible water source, you will greatly reduce the danger of ingesting harmful amounts of radioactivity.
Although many factors (wind direction, rainfall, sediment) will influence your choice in selecting water
sources, consider the following guidelines.
Safest Water Sources
Water from springs, wells, or other underground sources that undergo natural filtration will be your safest
source. Any water found in the pipes or containers of abandoned houses or stores will also be free from
radioactive particles. This water will be safe to drink, although you will have to take precautions against
bacteria in the water.
Snow taken from 15 or more centimeters below the surface during the fallout is also a safe source of
water.
Streams and Rivers
Water from streams and rivers will be relatively free from fallout within several days after the last nuclear
explosion because of dilution. If at all possible, filter such water before drinking to get rid of radioactive
particles. The best filtration method is to dig sediment holes or seepage basins along the side of a water
source. The water will seep laterally into the hole through the intervening soil that acts as a filtering agent
and removes the contaminated fallout particles that settled on the original body of water. This method
can remove up to 99 percent of the radioactivity in water. You must cover the hole in some way in order
to prevent further contamination. See Figure 6-9 for an example of a water filter.
Standing Water
Water from lakes, pools, ponds, and other standing sources is likely to be heavily contaminated, though
most of the heavier, long-lived radioactive isotopes will settle to the bottom. Use the settling technique to
purify this water. First, fill a bucket or other deep container three-fourths full with contaminated water.
Then take dirt from a depth of 10 or more centimeters below the ground surface and stir it into the water.
Use about 2.5 centimeters of dirt for every 10 centimeters of water. Stir the water until you see most dirt
particles suspended in the water. Let the mixture settle for at least 6 hours. The settling dirt particles will
carry most of the suspended fallout particles to the bottom and cover them. You can then dip out the
clear water. Purify this water using a filtration device.
Additional Precautions
As an additional precaution against disease, treat all water with water purification tablets from your
survival kit or boil it.

Food Procurement
Although it is a serious problem to obtain edible food in a radiation-contaminated area, it is not
impossible to solve. You need to follow a few special procedures in selecting and preparing rations and
local foods for use. Since secure packaging protects your combat rations, they will be perfectly safe for
use. Supplement your rations with any food you can find on trips outside your shelter. Most processed
foods you may find in abandoned buildings are safe for use after decontaminating them. These include
canned and packaged foods after removing the containers or wrappers or washing them free of fallout
particles. These processed foods also include food stored in any closed container and food stored in
Page 227 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

protected areas (such as cellars), if you wash them before eating. Wash all food containers or wrappers
before handling them to prevent further contamination.
If little or no processed food is available in your area, you may have to supplement your diet with local
food sources. Local food sources are animals and plants.
Animals as a Food Source
Assume that all animals, regardless of their habitat or living conditions, were exposed to radiation. The
effects of radiation on animals are similar to those on humans. Thus, most of the wild animals living in a
fallout area are likely to become sick or die from radiation during the first month after the nuclear
explosion. Even though animals may not be free from harmful radioactive materials, you can and must
use them in survival conditions as a food source if other foods are not available. With careful preparation
and by following several important principles, animals can be safe food sources.
First, do not eat an animal that appears to be sick. It may have developed a bacterial infection as a result
of radiation poisoning. Contaminated meat, even if thoroughly cooked, could cause severe illness or
death if eaten.
Carefully skin all animals to prevent any radioactive particles on the skin or fur from entering the body.
Do not eat meat close to the bones and joints as an animal's skeleton contains over 90 percent of the
radioactivity. The remaining animal muscle tissue, however, will be safe to eat. Before cooking it, cut the
meat away from the bone, leaving at least a 3-millimeter thickness of meat on the bone. Discard all
internal organs (heart, liver, and kidneys) since they tend to concentrate beta and gamma radioactivity.
Cook all meat until it is very well done. To be sure the meat is well done, cut it into less than 13millimeter-thick pieces before cooking. Such cuts will also reduce cooking time and save fuel.
The extent of contamination in fish and aquatic animals will be much greater than that of land animals.
This is also true for water plants, especially in coastal areas. Use aquatic food sources only in conditions
of extreme emergency.
All eggs, even if laid during the period of fallout, will be safe to eat. Completely avoid milk from any
animals in a fallout area because animals absorb large amounts of radioactivity from the plants they eat.
Plants as a Food Source
Plant contamination occurs by the accumulation of fallout on their outer surfaces or by absorption of
radioactive elements through their roots. Your first choice of plant food should be vegetables such as
potatoes, turnips, carrots, and other plants whose edible portion grows underground. These are the
safest to eat once you scrub them and remove their skins.
Second in order of preference are those plants with edible parts that you can decontaminate by washing
and peeling their outer surfaces. Examples are bananas, apples, tomatoes, prickly pears, and other such
fruits and vegetables.
Any smooth-skinned vegetable, fruit, or plant that you cannot easily peel or effectively decontaminate by
washing will be your third choice of emergency food.
The effectiveness of decontamination by scrubbing is inversely proportional to the roughness of the fruit's
surface. Smooth-surfaced fruits have lost 90 percent of their contamination after washing, while washing
rough-surfaced plants removes only about 50 percent of the contamination.
You eat rough-surfaced plants (such as lettuce) only as a last resort because you cannot effectively
decontaminate them by peeling or washing. Other difficult foods to decontaminate by washing with water
include dried fruits (figs, prunes, peaches, apricots, pears) and soya beans.
In general, you can use any plant food that is ready for harvest if you can effectively decontaminate it.
Growing plants, however, can absorb some radioactive materials through their leaves as well as from the
soil, especially if rains have occurred during or after the fallout period. Avoid using these plants for food
except in an emergency.

BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENTS
The use of biological agents is real. Prepare yourself for survival by being proficient in the tasks identified
in your Soldier's Manuals of Common Tasks (SMCTs). Know what to do to protect yourself against these
agents.

Biological Agents and Effects
Page 228 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Biological agents are microorganisms that can cause disease among personnel, animals, or plants. They
can also cause the deterioration of material. These agents fall into two broad categories-pathogens
(usually called germs) and toxins. Pathogens are living microorganisms that cause lethal or
incapacitating diseases. Bacteria, rickettsiae, fungi, and viruses are included in the pathogens. Toxins
are poisons that plants, animals, or microorganisms produce naturally. Possible biological war-fare toxins
include a variety of neurotoxic (affecting the central nervous system) and cytotoxic (causing cell death)
compounds.
Germs
Germs are living organisms. Some nations have used them in the past as weapons. Only a few germs
can start an infection, especially if inhaled into the lungs. Because germs are so small and weigh so little,
the wind can spread them over great distances; they can also enter unfiltered or nonairtight places.
Buildings and bunkers can trap them thus causing a higher concentration. Germs do not affect the body
immediately. They must multiply inside the body and overcome the body's defenses--a process called
the incubation period. Incubation periods vary from several hours to several months, depending on the
germ. Most germs must live within another living organism (host), such as your body, to survive and
grow. Weather conditions such as wind, rain, cold, and sunlight rapidly kill germs.
Some germs can form protective shells, or spores, to allow survival outside the host. Spore-producing
agents are a long-term hazard you must neutralize by decontaminating infected areas or personnel.
Fortunately, most live agents are not spore-producing. These agents must find a host within roughly a
day of their delivery or they die. Germs have three basic routes of entry into your body: through the
respiratory tract, through a break in the skin, and through the digestive tract. Symptoms of infection vary
according to the disease.
Toxins
Toxins are substances that plants, animals, or germs produce naturally. These toxins are what actually
harm man, not bacteria. Botulin, which produces botulism, is an example. Modern science has allowed
large-scale production of these toxins without the use of the germ that produces the toxin. Toxins may
produce effects similar to those of chemical agents. Toxic victims may not, however, respond to first aid
measures used against chemical agents. Toxins enter the body in the same manner as germs. However,
some toxins, unlike germs, can penetrate unbroken skin. Symptoms appear almost immediately, since
there is no incubation period. Many toxins are extremely lethal, even in very small doses. Symptoms may
include any of the following:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Dizziness.
Mental confusion.
Blurred or double vision.
Numbness or tingling of skin.
Paralysis.
Convulsions.
Rashes or blisters.
Coughing.
Fever.
Aching muscles.
Tiredness.
Nausea, vomiting, and/or diarrhea.
Bleeding from body openings.
Blood in urine, stool, or saliva.
Shock.
Death.

Detection of Biological Agents
Biological agents are, by nature, difficult to detect. You cannot detect them by any of the five physical
senses. Often, the first sign of a biological agent will be symptoms of the victims exposed to the agent.
Page 229 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Your best chance of detecting biological agents before they can affect you is to recognize their means of
delivery. The three main means of delivery are-•

•
•

Bursting-type munitions. These may be bombs or projectiles whose burst causes very little
damage. The burst will produce a small cloud of liquid or powder in the immediate impact area.
This cloud will disperse eventually; the rate of dispersion depends on terrain and weather
conditions.
Spray tanks or generators. Aircraft or vehicle spray tanks or ground-level aerosol generators
produce an aerosol cloud of biological agents.
Vectors. Insects such as mosquitoes, fleas, lice, and ticks deliver pathogens. Large infestations of
these insects may indicate the use of biological agents.

Another sign of a possible biological attack is the presence of unusual substances on the ground or on
vegetation, or sick-looking plants, crops, or animals.

Influence of Weather and Terrain
Your knowledge of how weather and terrain affect the agents can help you avoid contamination by
biological agents. Major weather factors that affect biological agents are sunlight, wind, and precipitation.
Aerosol sprays will tend to concentrate in low areas of terrain, similar to early morning mist.
Sunlight contains visible and ultraviolet solar radiation that rapidly kills most germs used as biological
agents. However, natural or man-made cover may protect some agents from sunlight. Other man-made
mutant strains of germs may be resistant to sunlight.
High wind speeds increase the dispersion of biological agents, dilute their concentration, and dehydrate
them. The further downwind the agent travels, the less effective it becomes due to dilution and death of
the pathogens. However, the downwind hazard area of the biological agent is significant and you cannot
ignore it.
Precipitation in the form of moderate to heavy rain tends to wash biological agents out of the air,
reducing downwind hazard areas. However, the agents may still be very effective where they were
deposited on the ground.

Protection Against Biological Agents
While you must maintain a healthy respect for biological agents, there is no reason for you to panic. You
can reduce your susceptibility to biological agents by maintaining current immunizations, avoiding
contaminated areas, and controlling rodents and pests. You must also use proper first aid measures in
the treatment of wounds and only safe or properly decontaminated sources of food and water. You must
ensure that you get enough sleep to prevent a run-down condition. You must always use proper field
sanitation procedures.
Assuming you do not have a protective mask, always try to keep your face covered with some type of
cloth to protect yourself against biological agent aerosols. Dust may contain biological agents; wear
some type of mask when dust is in the air.
Your uniform and gloves will protect you against bites from vectors (mosquitoes and ticks) that carry
diseases. Completely button your clothing and tuck your trousers tightly into your boots. Wear a chemical
protective overgarment, if available, as it provides better protection than normal clothing. Covering your
skin will also reduce the chance of the agent entering your body through cuts or scratches. Always
practice high standards of personal hygiene and sanitation to help prevent the spread of vectors.
Bathe with soap and water whenever possible. Use germicidal soap, if available. Wash your hair and
body thoroughly, and clean under your fingernails. Clean teeth, gums, tongue, and the roof of your
mouth frequently. Wash your clothing in hot, soapy water if you can. If you cannot wash your clothing, lay
it out in an area of bright sunlight and allow the light to kill the microorganisms. After a toxin attack,
decontaminate yourself as if for a chemical attack using the M258A2 kit (if available) or by washing with
soap and water.
Page 230 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Shelter
You can build expedient shelters under biological contamination conditions using the same techniques
described in Chapter 5. However, you must make slight changes to reduce the chance of biological
contamination. Do not build your shelter in depressions in the ground. Aerosol sprays tend to concentrate
in these depressions. Avoid building your shelter in areas of vegetation, as vegetation provides shade
and some degree of protection to biological agents. Avoid using vegetation in constructing your shelter.
Place your shelter's entrance at a 90-degree angle to the prevailing winds. Such placement will limit the
entry of airborne agents and prevent air stagnation in your shelter. Always keep your shelter clean.

Water Procurement
Water procurement under biological conditions is difficult but not impossible. Whenever possible, try to
use water that has been in a sealed container. You can assume that the water inside the sealed
container is not contaminated. Wash the water container thoroughly with soap and water or boil it for at
least 10 minutes before breaking the seal.
If water in sealed containers is not available, your next choice, only under emergency conditions, is water
from springs. Again, boil the water for at least 10 minutes before drinking. Keep the water covered while
boiling to prevent contamination by airborne pathogens. Your last choice, only in an extreme emergency,
is to use standing water. Vectors and germs can survive easily in stagnant water. Boil this water as long
as practical to kill all organisms. Filter this water through a cloth to remove the dead vectors. Use water
purification tablets in all cases.

Food Procurement
Food procurement, like water procurement, is not impossible, but you must take special precautions.
Your combat rations are sealed, and you can assume they are not contaminated. You can also assume
that sealed containers or packages of processed food are safe. To ensure safety, decontaminate all food
containers by washing with soap and water or by boiling the container in water for 10 minutes.
You consider supplementing your rations with local plants or animals only in extreme emergencies. No
matter what you do to prepare the food, there is no guarantee that cooking will kill all the biological
agents. Use local food only in life or death situations. Remember, you can survive for a long time without
food, especially if the food you eat may kill you!
If you must use local food, select only healthy-looking plants and animals. Do not select known carriers
of vectors such as rats or other vermin. Select and prepare plants as you would in radioactive areas.
Prepare animals as you do plants. Always use gloves and protective clothing when handling animals or
plants. Cook all plant and animal food by boiling only. Boil all food for at least 10 minutes to kill all
pathogens. Do not try to fry, bake, or roast local food. There is no guarantee that all infected portions
have reached the required temperature to kill all pathogens. Do not eat raw food.

CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENTS
Chemical agent warfare is real. It can create extreme problems in a survival situation, but you can
overcome the problems with the proper equipment, knowledge, and training. As a survivor, your first line
of defense against chemical agents is your proficiency in individual nuclear, biological, and chemical
(NBC) training, to include donning and wearing the protective mask and overgarment, personal
decontamination, recognition of chemical agent symptoms, and individual first aid for chemical agent
contamination. The SMCTs cover these subjects. If you are not proficient in these skills, you will have
little chance of surviving a chemical environment.
The subject matter covered below is not a substitute for any of the individual tasks in which you must be
proficient. The SMCTs address the various chemical agents, their effects, and first aid for these agents.
The following information is provided under the assumption that you are proficient in the use of chemical
protective equipment and know the symptoms of various chemical agents.
Page 231 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

Detection of Chemical Agents
The best method for detecting chemical agents is the use of a chemical agent detector. If you have one,
use it. However, in a survival situation, you will most likely have to rely solely on the use of all of your
physical senses. You must be alert and able to detect any clues indicating the use of chemical warfare.
General indicators of the presence of chemical agents are tears, difficult breathing, choking, itching,
coughing, and dizziness. With agents that are very hard to detect, you must watch for symptoms in fellow
survivors. Your surroundings will provide valuable clues to the presence of chemical agents; for example,
dead animals, sick people, or people and animals displaying abnormal behavior.
Your sense of smell may alert you to some chemical agents, but most will be odorless. The odor of newly
cut grass or hay may indicate the presence of choking agents. A smell of almonds may indicate blood
agents.
Sight will help you detect chemical agents. Most chemical agents in the solid or liquid state have some
color. In the vapor state, you can see some chemical agents as a mist or thin fog immediately after the
bomb or shell bursts. By observing for symptoms in others and by observing delivery means, you may be
able to have some warning of chemical agents. Mustard gas in the liquid state will appear as oily patches
on leaves or on buildings.
The sound of enemy munitions will give some clue to the presence of chemical weapons. Muffled shell or
bomb detonations are a good indicator.
Irritation in the nose or eyes or on the skin is an urgent warning to protect your body from chemical
agents. Additionally, a strange taste in food, water, or cigarettes may serve as a warning that they have
been contaminated.

Protection Against Chemical Agents
As a survivor, always use the following general steps, in the order listed, to protect yourself from a
chemical attack:
•
•
•
•

Use protective equipment.
Give quick and correct self-aid when contaminated.
Avoid areas where chemical agents exist.
Decontaminate your equipment and body as soon as possible.

Your protective mask and overgarment are the key to your survival. Without these, you stand very little
chance of survival. You must take care of these items and protect them from damage. You must practice
and know correct self-aid procedures before exposure to chemical agents. The detection of chemical
agents and the avoidance of contaminated areas is extremely important to your survival. Use whatever
detection kits may be available to help in detection. Since you are in a survival situation, avoid
contaminated areas at all costs. You can expect no help should you become contaminated. If you do
become contaminated, decontaminate yourself as soon as possible using proper procedures.

Shelter
If you find yourself in a contaminated area, try to move out of the area as fast as possible. Travel
crosswind or upwind to reduce the time spent in the downwind hazard area. If you cannot leave the area
immediately and have to build a shelter, use normal shelter construction techniques, with a few changes.
Build the shelter in a clearing, away from all vegetation. Remove all topsoil in the area of the shelter to
decontaminate the area. Keep the shelter's entrance closed and oriented at a 90-degree angle to the
prevailing wind. Do not build a fire using contaminated wood--the smoke will be toxic. Use extreme
caution when entering your shelter so that you will not bring contamination inside.

Water Procurement
Page 232 of 233

FM 21-76

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL

Reprinted as permitted by U.S. Department of the Army

As with biological and nuclear environments, getting water in a chemical environment is difficult.
Obviously, water in sealed containers is your best and safest source. You must protect this water as
much as possible. Be sure to decontaminate the containers before opening.
If you cannot get water in sealed containers, try to get it from a closed source such as underground water
pipes. You may use rainwater or snow if there is no evidence of contamination. Use water from slowmoving streams, if necessary, but always check first for signs of contamination, and always filter the
water as described under nuclear conditions. Signs of water source contamination are foreign odors such
as garlic, mustard, geranium, or bitter almonds; oily spots on the surface of the water or nearby; and the
presence of dead fish or animals. If these signs are present, do not use the water. Always boil or purify
the water to prevent bacteriological infection.

Food Procurement
It is extremely difficult to eat while in a contaminated area. You will have to break the seal on your
protective mask to eat. If you eat, find an area in which you can safely unmask. The safest source of food
is your sealed combat rations. Food in sealed cans or bottles will also be safe. Decontaminate all sealed
food containers before opening, otherwise you will contaminate the food.
If you must supplement your combat rations with local plants or animals, do not use plants from
contaminated areas or animals that appear to be sick. When handling plants or animals, always use
protective gloves and clothing.

Page 233 of 233

http://oldu.fr/docs/1_Manuels/Handbook.Survival.Manual.FM2176_by.US.Army.pdf

Anonymous

US ARMY SURVIVAL MANUAL15.04.25

Information Epoch 1746029540